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THE REASONS 



THE LAWS OF MOSES. 



THE "MORE NEVOCHIM" OF MAIMONIDES. 



WITH NOTES, DISSERTATIONS, AND 
A LIFE OF THE AUTHOR. 



BY JAMES TOWNLEY, D. D. 

.■1I7THOR OF "ILLUSTRATIONS OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE," 8fC. fyc. 



Quemadmodum adhuc viget, ita in omne cevum vigebil, MAIM0N1 DIS 
memoria. Bishop Ci.avertng. 



LONDON 



LOV8MAN, BEES, ORME, BROWN, AND GREEN, PATERNOSTER-ROW 
AND JOHN COCHRAN, 108, STRAND. 



1827. 



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LONDON: 

PRINTED BY JAMES NICHOLS, 
WARWICK SQUAHE, NEWGATE STREET, 



2,7 y 



PREFACE. 



•"T^HE Laws and Institutions of Moses con- 
stitute the earliest and most original system 
of ecclesiastical and civil jurisprudence and 
polity, with which the world has ever been 
favoured. Suited to the genius, the habits, and 
the circumstances of the people to whom they 
were delivered, they comprize not merely a code 
of political and moral regulations, for the wise 
and prosperous conduct of the Jews, as a distinct 
and peculiar people ; but rules of economy, for 
the promotion of their health and domestic com- 
fort. Justly claiming to be a revelation from 
£}od, they are marked with the authority, and 
inculcate the unity, purity, and goodness, of 
Jehovah ; and promise that temporal prosperity 
to the obedient, which the enactments of no 
other legislator ever dared to propose. Designed 
to introduce another religious dispensation, many 
•of the rites were symbolical in their character, 
and being succeeded by a series of prophetic 
enunciations, served gradually to develope the 
a 2 



IV PREFACE. 

scheme of human redemption by the incarnation 
and death of the Messiah. 

Amongst the innumerable commentators and 
expounders of the Mosaic writings, Maimonides 
deservedly ranks among the foremost for intelli- 
gence and learning. His fame as a writer on 
Jewish Literature and Antiquities, is fully 
established by the sanction of the learned of dif- 
ferent ages and countries, whether Jews or Chris- 
tians, who constantly refer to him as indisputable 
authority on every topic of Hebrew Legislation 
and Tradition. His writings are multifarious and 
voluminous ; but in none of them do we discover 
more extensive knowledge or sounder judgment, 
than in his More Nevochim, or "Teacher of 
the Perplexed." Of this work, which contains 
critical remarks on Hebrew Words and Phrases* 
and explanatory observations on Jewish opinions, 
no portion is more deservedly esteemed or does 
greater credit to the writer, than that which is 
devoted to the examination of the " Reasons of 
the Laws of Moses." Yet it is a singular fact, 
that, although this part has been uniformly 
referred to, and quoted by almost every writer 
on the Mosaic Institutes, no entire English 
translation has ever yet appeared ; and the reader 
of the various interesting extracts made from it 
by Bishop Patrick, in his learned and valuable 



PREFACE, V 

Commentary, as well as by others of consider- 
able note, has only to regret that he is not in 
possession of the whole exposition. 

Impressed with a conviction of the importance 
and general excellence of this compendious 
defence of the Ritual of Moses, the translator, 
without pledging himself to the absolute correct- 
ness of every opinion maintained by the author, 
has attempted to give a faithful, but not a servile 
translation of it. The copies of the work which 
were before him, were R. Samuel Aben Tybbon's 
Hebrew edition, with the triple Rabbinical com- 
mentaries of RR. Shem Tob, Ephodseus, and 
Karshakas, printed in folio, at Jaznetz, in 1742, 
— and the Latin versions of Justinian, and Bux- 
torf, the former in folio, printed in 1520, at 
Paris, by Jodocus Badius Ascensius, in a beau- 
tiful Gothic character ; the latter, in quarto, 
printed at Basle, by J. J. Genath, in 1629. — In 
a few instances, the translator, from motives of 
delicacy, has ventured to abridge the details of 
the author, but has generally inserted them in 
the Notes, from Buxtorf. 

To the Translation, are prefixed a Life of 
Maimonides, with several Dissertations on 
different subjects connected with the object of 
the work ; and which, with the Notes appended 
at the close, the translator trusts, will serve to 



VI PREFACE. 

elucidate the views and positions of the author, 
and occasionally to rectify what has been 
regarded as erroneous or uncertain. 

In presenting the result of his labours to the 
public, the Translator is far from wishing to 
depreciate any similar works which have been 
previously published. The principal publications 
of this nature, accessible to the English reader, 
(except those which are restricted to the Anti- 
quities or Customs of the Jews,) are, Michaelis's 
" Commentaries on the Laws of Moses,'*' 4 vols. 
8vo., translated from the German, by Dr. 
Smith; Lowman's "Rational of the Ritual of 
the Hebrew Worship ;" Shaw's " History and 
Philosophy of Judaism ;" Graves, " On the Four 
last Books of Moses," 2 vols. ; Woodward, " On 
the Wisdom of the Egyptians," Ato. ; Fergus, 
"On the Reasonableness of the Laws of Moses ;" 
Atkins's " Attempt to illustrate the Jewish 
Law ;" Jahn's " Biblical Archaeology," trans- 
lated from the German, by T. C. Upham ; 
Fleury's "Manners of the Israelites," by Dr. A. 
Clarke ; and the " Commentaries" of Bishop 
Patrick and Dr. A. Clarke. For although other 
Commentators have occasionally explained and 
defended the Mosaic Ritual, these have exhibited 
the greatest learning and research. 

These works have each their respective excel- 



PREFACE. VII 

lencies; and all of them have eludicated, with 
considerable talent and effect, the objects they 
severally proposed. These, however, have been 
various : Michaelis proposes to consider the 
Mosaic Laws, not as a Theologian, but as a 
Civilian ; Graves, and Shaw vindicate their 
Divine Authority against Infidels; Lowman, and 
Fergus defend their general importance ; Wood- 
ward refutes the opinions of Dr. Spencer, in his 
work, " De Legibus Hebreeorum ;" and Jahn and 
Fleury illustrate the Jewish Antiquities. Mai- 
monides's work, therefore, though brief, enters 
more into detail, and exhibits more fully than 
the others, -the sentiments of the intelligent and 
learned of the Hebrew nation, on the reasons 
and peculiar objects of their Ceremonial Law. 

To the reader who wishes to pursue the subject 
beyond the range of English authors, the pre- 
sent writer would recommend, amongst others, 
Dr. Spencer's learned work, " De Legibus 
Hebreeorum ;" and Sir John Marsham's " Canon 
Chronicus iEgyptiacus," &c. corrected in some 
of their peculiar opinions by Witsius's 
" iEgyptiaca ;" and Meyer's Treatise, " De 
Temporibus et Festis Diebus Hebreeorum;" 
Cuneeus, " De Republica Hebreeorum;" and 
Bochart's " Hierozoicon," a work replete with 
various and recondite information. 



Vlll PREFACE. 

In concluding his prefatory remarks, the 
Translator is aware that a work commenced and 
completed amidst the interruptions of official 
duties, must have occasion to claim indulgence 
for defects; but assured by former approbation, 
that his consciousness of a sincere desire to serve 
the best interests of mankind, will be met by 
corresponding candour, he submits the present 
Translation and accompanying Dissertations and 
Notes, with confidence to the public, hoping 
that the Blessing of the God of Jacob will 
accompany this attempt to vindicate the wisdom, 
and equity, and benevolence of Institutions 
Divinely authorized, and solemnly promulged. 



CONTENTS. 



LIFE OF MAIMONIDES VA 

DISSERTATIONS. 

I. — Talmudical and Rabbinical Writings 26 

II.— The Zabian Idolatry 38 

III. — The Originality of the Institutions of Moses ... 48 
IV. — The Mosaic Distinction of Clean and Unclean 

Animals . . . „ 62 

V.— The Prohibition of Blood 76 

VI. — The Typical Character of the Mosaic Institutions 87 

VII— The Leprosy 102 

VIII. — Talismans and Talismanic Figures 112 

IX. — Judicial Astrology 127 



TRANSLATION OF MAIMONIDES ON THE 
MOSAIC PRECEPTS. 

Chap. I. — Whether the Mosaic Precepts have a dis- 
coverable design, or depend solely on the 
Will of God 14$ 

II. — The Law has a two-fold Intention : the 

Perfection of the Mind, and the Welfare of 
the Body 149 



X CONTENTS, 

Page 

Chap. III.— The Mosaic Precepts are rational, tend- 
ing either to the Well-being of the Soul 
or of the Body 152 

— — i IV.— Abraham imprisoned and exiled for com- 
bating the errors of the Zabii. — Zabian 
Idolatries and Fables 156 

V. — Why the ancient Idolaters united Agricul- 
ture with the Worship of the Stars 169 

VI. — Reply to those who suppose that no 

Reasons can be assigned for the Precepts 

of the Law ... 172 

■ VII. — As all the Natural Works of God have 

their respective Causes and Reasons, so 
also have the Precepts of the Law. — The 
Origin of Oblations 174 

— — VIII. — The Prohibition of external Unclean- 
ness and Impurity is conducive to the 
Purification of the Heart 187 

IX. — The Law is accommodated to Nations, 

not to Individuals 191 

■ X.— The Precepts divided into Fourteen 

Classes 193 

— — XL— The Precepts of the First Ckss 198 

XII— The Precepts of the Second Class 201 

XIII— The Precepts of the Third Class . . 217 

_ XIV— The Precepts of the Fourth Class . . 281 



CONTENTS. XI 

Page 
Chap. XV.— The Precepts of the Fifth Class .... 226 

XVI— The Precepts of the Sixth Class 232 

XVII.— The Precepts of the Seventh Class 252 

XVIII.— The Precepts of the Eighth Class 254 

XIX.— The Precepts of the Ninth Class 260 

XX— The Precepts of the Tenth Class 261 

XXI.— The Precepts of the Eleventh Class 272 

XXII— The Precepts of the Twelfth Class 294 

XXIII— The Precepts of the Thirteenth 

Class 305 

XXIV— The Precepts of the Fourteenth 

Class 310 

NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 327—428 

INDEX H . . . . 429—450 



LIFE 



MA1MONIDES. 



TJABBI MOSES Ben Maimon or Maimonides, called 
alsoR-AMBAM from the initials of his name, and Moses 
the Egyptian from his long residence in Egypt, was born 
at Cordova in Spain, in the year 1131, or according to 
some 1133, of the Christian era. His father, who was 
descended from an illustrious line of ancestors, sustained 
the office of judge among his own nation; and by his 
knowledge of jurisprudence, and the ability and integrity 
with which he executed the difficult and important duties 
of the magistracy, secured the respect of Christians as 
well as Jews. 

The education of young Maimonides appears to have 
been conducted, atfirst, under the immediate superintendence 
of his father ; but a series of domestic quarrels having sub- 
sequently obliged him to quit the paternal roof, he placed 
himself under the care of the most learned Jewish teachers, 
and studied, with sedulous attention, the Mosaic Law, 
and its various Talmudical and Rabbinical commentaries. 
After devoting some years to the pursuit of Hebrew learn- 
ing, he attached himself to the great Arabian philosopher 
and physician Averroes, as one of his pupils and disciples. 
With these advantages, and possessing a mind vigorous, 
penetrating, and acute, he not only made uncommon pro- 
B 



14 LIFE OF 

gress in Rabbinical literature, but excelled also in the mathe- 
matical, metaphysical, and medical sciences ; and added to 
a knowledge of the Hebrew and Arabic languages, 
an acquaintance with the Chaldee, Turkish, and Greek, 
beside the other more modern dialects of the countries in 
which he resided. As his knowledge was profound, so 
his reading was extensive and various, having read not 
only the works of tire most celebrated Rabbins of his own 
nation, but also the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Themis- 
tius, Galen, and of the Philosophers in general. 

The astonishing talents and learning of Averroes pro- 
duced, in Maimonides, an esteem and attachment, disin- 
terested and unconquerable ; so that when a violent perse- 
cution had been raised against Averroes, and he had been 
removed from the Chief Magistracy of Cordova by the 
influence of the Mussulman doctors, who suspected him of 
defection from the Mohammedan faith, Maimonides con- 
tinued the offices of friendship, and, sooner than discover 
his place of concealment, submitted to a voluntary exile 
from his native country and early associates, and withdrew 
into Egypt where he principally resided during the rest of 
his life. To this steady devotion to the interests of his 
teacher and friend, we ought, probably, to attribute the 
calumny raised against Maimonides by the zealots of his 
nation, that he had apostatized from the religion of his 
fathers and embraced the peculiarities of Islamism ; — 
a calumny industriously propagated by his enemies, so that 
one of them, a Spaniard, named Abu- Arab, a man of emi- 
nent talents, coming to reside in Egypt, embittered his 
latter days, by renewing the charge of apostacy, with such 
determined enmity, that at length the Sultan summoned 
Abu-Arab into his presence and silenced him, by defend- 
ing Maimonides, and deciding, that even if he had pro- 
fessed himself a disciple of Mohammed, during a time of 
violent persecution, he ought not to be regarded as an apos- 
tate, for that " whatsoever is done involuntarily and by 



MAIMONIDES. IO 

violence, in matters of religion, ought to be considered as 
nothing. 1 ' It must, however, be acknowledged that this 
principle, though one which had been maintained by our 
author himself, in an Epistle addressed to his persecuted 
countrymen, is founded too much on the doctrine of 
expediency^ and too much fraught with the most danger- 
ous consequences, to have been a sufficient apology for a 
false profession of Islamism, if so foul a prevarication had 
been proved against him. 

On removing to Egypt, Maimonides settled at Cairo, 
where, for want of other employment, he was at first 
reduced to the necessity of trading as a jeweller. But neither 
penury nor persecution could repress his ardour for study ; 
for, in the midst of complicated troubles, he continued and 
completed his Commentary on the Mishna or Oral Law,* 
which he had begun in Spain, at the age of twenty-three ; 
and prior to which he had composed a Commentary on. 
certain portions of the Gem aha, that has been unfortu- 
nately lost, probably at the period of his removal from 
Spain. 

After some time, his great merit introduced him to the 
notice and esteem of the Sultan Alphadel, who appointed him 
his physician, and allowed him a pension. In an epistle to 
his friend, R. Samuel Aben Tybbon, he thus describes 
the daily occupations of his elevated station : — " I gene- 
rally visit the Sultan every morning ; and when either he, 
or his children, or his wives are attacked with any disorder, 
I am detained in attendance the whole of the day; or, 
when any of the nobility are sick, I am ordered to visit 
them. But, if nothing prevent, I repair to my own habi- 
tation at noon, where I no sooner arrive, exhausted, and 
faint with hunger, than I find myself surrounded with a 
crowd of Jews and Gentiles, nobles and peasants, judges 
and tax-gatherers, friends and enemies, eagerly expecting 

* See the Dissertation on the Rabbinical Writings. 
B 2 



16 life or 

the time of my return. Alighting from my horse, I wash 
my hands, according to custom, and then courteously and 
respectfully saluting my guests, entreat them to wait with 
patience whilst I take some refreshment. Dinner con- 
cluded, I hasten to enquire into their various complaints* 
and to prescribe for them the necessary medicines. Such 
is the business of every day. Frequently, indeed, it hap- 
pens, that some are obliged to wait till evening, and I con- 
tinue for many hours, and even to a late hour of the night, 
incessantly engaged in listening, talking, ordering, and 
prescribing, till I am so overpowered with fatigue and sleep 
that I can scarcely utter a word." 

At the command of the Sultan, he translated the works 
of the celebrated Arabian physician, Avicenna or Ibn 
Sina; a copy of which is said to be preserved at Bologna, 
with the following titular inscription : " Abensara : trans- 
lated by our master, Moses the son of Maimon, whose 
memory be blessed I 11 

His residence at the court of the Egyptian Prince, 
enabled him not only to protect the Jews, by his influence 
with the Sultan, but also to found an academy for his 
nation at Alexandria, which he appears to have counte- 
nanced and promoted by his personal superintendence and 
instructions. The celebrity of the institution drew stu- 
dents from various parts of Egypt, Judea, and Syria, 
who, attracted by the fame of Maimonides, rejoiced in the 
opportunity afforded them of becoming his scholars. This 
desire of benefiting by the advantages of the Alexandrian 
academy continued, with increasing ardour, till persecu- 
tions, being raised by the Mohammedans against the Jews, 
rendered it unsafe for strangers to visit Egypt, and even 
induced some to assume the character of Mohammedans 
who secretly retained their preference for Judaism. 

The multifarious engagements of our learned physician, 
numerous and toilsome as they were, could not divert him 
from his favourite studies of Hebrew jurisprudence and 



MAIMONIDES. 17 

literature ; we therefore find him labouring with indefa- 
tigable diligence and patience on a digest of the Jewish 
laws, collected from the immense and confused compila- 
tions of the Talmud. This great work he entitled Yad 
Hacliazakali, " The strong hand, 1 ' or Mislmeh Torah, 
" The Mishnical Law :"* it has been several times printed ; 
and is held in high estimation as an excellent compendium 
of the laws and decisions of the Talmud. 

Another work of still greater interest and value, was his 
More Nevochtm, or " Instructor of the Perplexed," 
which he completed in his fiftieth year, and to which he 
appears to have brought the most profound learning under 
the direction of the soundest judgment. It is a critical, 
philosophical, and theological work, in which he endea- 
vours to explain the difficult passages, phrases, parables, 
allegories, and ceremonies of the Old Testament ; and is 
rendered particularly important, by " an excellent Exposi- 
tion of the grounds and reasons of the Mosaic Laws,"" -f to 
which many of our most eminent Biblical critics and com- 
mentators have been deeply indebted.^ It was written 
originally in Arabic, by Maimonides, and afterwards trans- 
lated into Hebrew, with his approbation, by his friend and 
disciple, It. Samuel Aben Tybbon, author of an Hebrew 
translation of Euclid, and other learned works. A Pros- 
pectus of an edition of the Arabic, to be accompanied 
with a Latin version and notes, was circulated by the 
eminent Orientalist Dr. Thomas Hyde ; but not meet- 
ing with sufficient encouragement, he abandoned the 
design. The Prospectus has been since reprinted in the 
Syntagma of Dr. Hyde, by Dr. Gregory Sharpe. In 
1520, Justinian, Bishop of Nebio, published a Latin 

* See Dissertation on the Rabbinical Writings. 

•J- Graves' Lectures on the Pentateuch, i. 320. note. 

£ See Hyde De Veterum Fersarum, &c. — Patrick's, Dodd's, &c. Com- 
mentaries. — Selden. De Diis Syriis, &c. — Young on Idolatrous Corruptions. — ■ 
Spencer, De Legibus Heb. &c. &c. &c. 



18 THE LIFE OF 

translation of this work, in folio, beautifully printed with 
a Gothic type, by Badius Ascensius, at Paris. The 
younger Buxtorf undertook a new version of the Hebrew 
into Latin, which was printed at Basil, by J. J. Genath, 
1629, 4to. with a Preface including a biographical 
account of the author. The Hebrew, accompanied with 
Rabbinical commentaries, was printed at Venice, in 1553, 
and at Jaznitz, in 1742 : other editions also have been 
printed at different times, which it is unnecessary to parti- 
cularize. 

On the first appearance of the More Nevochim, and 
especially after its translation into Hebrew, by R. Samuel 
Aben Tybbon, it met with the most violent opposition 
from many of the more bigoted and pharisaical Rabbins, 
owing to its author having preferred Scripture and Reason, 
to the dogmas and decisions of the Talmudical and Rab- 
binical doctors, in the explanation of Scripture phraseology 
and precepts. Rabbi Solomon, who presided over the 
synagogue, and the other Rabbins of Montpelier, in 
France, were among the most violent opponents of the 
writings of Maimonides. Professing themselves defenders 
of the Talmud, they omitted nothing that could discredit 
our author, or render him suspected of maintaining erro- 
neous and dangerous doctrines. They even burnt his 
books, and excommunicated those who read them, or ap- 
plied themselves to the study of foreign languages and 
science. This violent procedure was determinately resisted 
by the Rabbins of Narbonne, who anathematized R. Solo- 
mon, and two of his disciples who had been the most active 
in seconding the views of their teacher. Exasperated by 
this act, R. Solomon and his adherents appealed to the 
other synagogues of France; and, having engaged them in 
their interest, induced them to return the anathema, by 
publicly excommunicating the Rabbins of the synagogues 
of Languedoc. The Rabbins of Narbonne, resolute in 
their defence of Maimonides and his More Nevochim, 



MAIMONIDES. 19 

immediately delegated the celebrated Rabbi David Kimchi 
to visit the synagogues of Catalonia and Arragon, and 
endeavour to prevail upon them to vindicate their illustrious 
countryman against the machinations of his furious ene- 
mies. Rabbi Kimchi undertook the mission, after having 
fruitlessly endeavoured to effect a reconciliation between 
the contending parties. Before he had proceeded far on 
his journey, he was seized with an illness, which prevented, 
him from visiting the synagogues in person : but by his 
letters and influence he so far accomplished his object, that 
although some individuals of eminence and learning warmly 
espoused the cause of R. Solomon and his associates, all 
the principal synagogues of Spain united in the anathema, 
denounced against the Rabbins of France, who had com- 
bined their efforts to suppress and discredit the writings of 
Maimonides. R. Solomon, in the mean time, irritated by 
this vigorous opposition to his designs, ventured on the 
desperate measure of applying to the Christians to aid his 
determination of destroying or preventing the reading of 
any of the works he had condemned. For this purpose 
he appealed first to the common people, and then to the 
ecclesiastical dignitaries, assuring them that certain heretics 
had sprung up among the Jews, who entertained dangerous 
opinions, and expressing an earnest wish that they might 
be treated as the Christians treated such characters among 
themselves, by burning both them and their works. For 
some time the Jews were brought into great contempt and 
danger ; but the decisive and united censure of the Spanish 
synagogues produced a. revolution in the public mind in 
favour of Maimonides and his writings ; for the Rabbins 
of France, astonished and alarmed by the proceedings 
of the Rabbins of Spain, withdrew their censure, 
revoked the decrees which had been passed at Montpelier, 
and consented to cancel the Epitaph on the tomb of 
Maimonides, who had been some time deceased, because it 
was there declared that he was excommunicated. The con- 



£0 THE LIFE OF 

test, however, did not entirely cease for several years, but 
Avas continued with more or less virulence till the year 
1232, when it finally terminated. 

The More NevocMm was the last great literary work in 
which our author engaged, unless, indeed, we except an 
accurate transcription of the Pentateuch made with his 
own hand, and designed to serve as an exemplar for the 
scribes of the Law. Of this transcription, Maimonides 
himself has stated, if the account given in an ancient manu- 
script be correct, that having frequently remarked, with 
pain, the very inaccurate and faulty manner in which the 
manuscripts of the Law, in use in Egypt, had been copied, 
he transcribed the Books of Moses with his own hand, 
from a most valuable and accurate copy, written before 
the destruction of Jerusalem, that other copies might be 
made by his disciples, and dispersed among the Jews who 
were settled in Egypt, that they might by this means be 
furnished with true copies of the Divine Laws. After 
completing his transcription, he visited Chalons, in Bur- 
gundy, and there obtained sight of a transcript of the Law, 
written by the hand of Ezra, the priest and scribe. 
With this venerated copy of the Pentateuch, he collated 
that which he himself had written, and found it to 
agree with it in every particular ; and so great was his 
joy on the occasion, that he vowed to celebrate the event 
by an annual feast. 

Some doubts, indeed, have been raised against the truth 
of this relation, from the fact not being stated in certain 
of his writings, in which it is supposed such an occurrence 
would have been noticed, if it had taken place ; but if the 
transcripts were made, as is not improbable, towards the 
close of his life, it could not be noticed in works composed 
prior to the event. 

Our great author died in Egypt, at the age of seventy, 
and was buried in the Land of' Israel. For three days 
successively there was a general mourning among the 



MAIMONIDES. 21 

Egyptians as well as the Jews ; and the year in which he 
died, was called Lamentum Lamentabile. " From Moses 
to Moses, 11 say the Rabbins proverbially, " there never 
arose one like unto Moses. 11 — " The memory of Maimo- 
sriDEs, 11 says Dr. Clavering, Bishop of Peterborough, 
" has hitherto flourished, and will continue to flourish for 



• Bartalocci Bibliotheca Mag. Rabbinica, torn. iv. pp.86 — 110, Homes, 
1676-93. — Buxtorf Maimonidis More Nevochim, in Prsefat. — Buxtorfii 
Biblioth. Rabbin. — Clavering, Maimonidis Tractatus Duo, &c. Dissertatio 

de Maimonide Basnage's History of the Jews, B. vii. cb. 8. — Wolfii 

Biblioth. Heb. torn. i. p. 834. Hamburgh et Lips. 1715, 4to. 



DISSERTATION I. 



TALMUDICAL AND RABBINICAL WRITINGS. 



npHE principal compilations and writings of the Jewish 
Doctors are the Talmuds, — the Targums, — Digests 
of 'Hebrew Jurisprudence, — Commentaries on the Scrip- 
tures, — and the Masora and Cabala. 

1.— THE TALMUDS. 

There are two Talmuds, designated from the respective 
places where they were compiled, the Talmud of Jerusa- 
lem and the Talmud qf Babylon. 

The Jerusalem Talmud was compiled in the year of 
Christ, 230, (or, according to some, in the year 300,) for 
the use of the Jews living in Judea, by Rabbi Jochanan, 
who for many years presided over the Synagogues of " the 
land of Israel." — It comprises a much smaller number of 
doctrinal and legal questions and decisions than the later 
Talmud of Babylon ; and, being written in the peculiar 
dialect of Judea, is difficult to be understood. On these 
accounts the voluminous Talmud of Babylon is preferred 
to the earlier Talmud of Jerusalem, by the Jews in general, 
among whom the Jerusalem Talmud is become so com- 
pletely obsolete, that the use of the term " Talmud'''' is almost 
exclusively appropriated to the Talmud of Babylon.—. 



RABBINICAL WRITINGS. *<0 

The Jerusalem Talmud was printed at Venice, in 1523, 
by D. Bomberg, in 1 vol. folio ; and again, with marginal 
glosses, at Cracow, J 609, in 1 vol. folio. 

The Talmud of Babylon was compiled for the use of 
Jews dwelling in Babylon and other foreign countries, 
and completed about A. D. 500. It is an immense work, 
containing the Traditions of the Jews, their Canon Law, 
and the questions and decisions of the Hebrew Doctors 
relative to their doctrines and usages. This Talmud has 
been several times printed : — in 1520, in 12 vols, folio, 
including the Comments of Jarchi, Ben Asher, and Mai- 
monides, by D. Bomberg, at Venice: — in 1581, by Fro- 
benius, at Basil, in which those passages are expunged 
that were directed against Christianity: — at Cracow, in 
which the passages left out in the Basil edition were 
restored: — at Amsterdam, in 1644, by Immanuel Benbe- 
nisti, in large quarto, on two kinds of paper : ( Wagenseil 
says, there were two editions, one correct, the other incor- 
rect :) but the best edition is said to be that printed at 
Berlin and Francfort, in 12 vols, folio, 1715. 

The Talmuds are composed of the Mishna, or Oral 
Law, which is the text, and the Gemaras, or decisions of 
the Jewish Doctors on the Mishna, prior to the compila- 
tion of the Talmuds. 

The Mishna, or Oral Law, consists of the traditionary 
explanations of the Law of Moses, said to have been given 
by God himself to Moses, on Mount Sinai, who trans- 
mitted them by Oral communications, through Aaron and 
his sons, to Joshua and the Prophets, and by them to the 
members of the great Sanhedrim, who committed them in 
a similar way to their successors, till the time of R. Judah 
HaMadosh, or the holy, who flourished about A. D. 150 : 
of whose compilation of the Mishna, David Levi, (" Cere- 
monies of the Jews," p. 285,) gives the following account : 
— " Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh was the compiler of the 
Mishna ; for, having seriously considered the state of our 



M 



TALMUDICAL AND 



nation in his time ; and also perceiving that the captivity 
had already continued a long time ; (he having lived about 
100 years after the destruction of the temple;) and that 
those learned in the Oral Law began to decrease : And 
justly apprehending that the face of affairs might one day 
grow worse, he came to the resolution of compiling and 
digesting into one body, all those Doctrines and Practices 
of our "church, which had been preserved and conveyed 
down to posterity by Oral Tradition, from the time of the 
Elders and the Prophets, the men of the Great Synagogue, 
and also the Mishnical Doctors clown to his own time. All 
these he committed to writing and arranged under six 
general heads, called Sedorim, orders or classes." — " As 
soon as the Mishna was committed to writing,'" adds the 
same learned Jew, " it was received by all our nation with a 
general consent, and was so universally approved of by 
them, that it was embraced as an authentic body of the 
Law, (as it undoubtedly was, being delivered by God to 
Moses as an explanation of the Written Law, and handed 
down by tradition, as already shown,) and taught in all 
our public schools in the Holy Land, as also in Babylon." 
The Gemaras are expositions of the Mishna; for the 
Mishna, being delivered in aphorisms or short sentences, as 
not being intended to be committed to writing, but deliver- 
ed by tradition, was thought to need some larger explica- 
tions to render it the more easy and intelligible. " This 
task," observes the author already quoted, " was begun 
within a short time after its first publication, by several of 
the most eminent and learned men in the nation, who, in 
their respective ages and schools, taught and expounded 
to their scholars the meaning of those short sentences, and 
illustrated all the difficult and less obvious passages of the 
Mishna, with proper and useful Comments ; and those 
Comments and Expositions are, what we call Gemara, 
that is, the Complement, because, by them the Mishna is 
fully explained, and the whole traditionary doctrine of our 



RABBINICAL WRITINGS. 25 

law and religion completed ; for the Mishna is the text, and 
the Gemara is the comment, and both together is what we 
call the Talmud.'''' — The comments thus collected by R. 
Jochanan in the third century of the Christian era, and 
appended to the Mishna, constitute, with it, the Jerusalem 
Talmud ; and the comments and expositions collected by 
H. Ashe and his successors in the presidentship of the 
Jewish academy at Sora, and completed about the year 
500, form, with the Mishna, the Babylonish Talmud; 
and are sometimes called the Talmud, though without the 
text, or Mishna. The Mishna, or text, is the same in both 
Talmuds, the difference being in the Gemaras or Com- 
ments. 

The Mishna has been frequently printed separately, 
with and without commentaries : — two editions, in folio, 
were printed at Naples, in 1492, with the commentary of 
Maimonides, by Joshua Solomon of Soncini : — another 
edition, with the Comments of Maimonides and Bartenora, 
was published at Venice, A. D. 1606, in folio, and again 
with brief and useful scholia in 1609, in 8vo. — There 
have also been separate portions printed both by Jews and 
Christians ; those by Christians are generally accompanied 
with translations, chiefly in Latin, except two titles or 
sections — Shabbath and Eruvin, in English, by Dr. 
Wotten, accompanied with learned notes, in a rare and 
valuable work, entitled, " Miscellaneous Discourses relat- 
ing to the Traditions and Usages of the Scribes and Phari- 
sees in our Blessed Saviour Jesus Christ's time." 2 vols. 
8vo., London, 1718 — The most complete and useful 
edition of the entire Mishna, is that by Surenhusius 
entitled, " Mischna, sive totius Hebraeorum Juris, 
Rituum, Antiquitatum, ac Legum Oralium Systema. Heb. 
et Lat. cum Commentariis Maimonidis, Bartenora et 
aliorum: Interprete, Editore et Notatore, Guil. S urenhusio^ 
Amst. 1698—1703, 6 volumes folio.—" This is a very 



^O TALMUD1CAL AND 

beautiful and correct work," says a learned commentator 
and bibliographer,* " necessary to the library of every 
biblical critic and divine. He who has it, need be solicitous 
for nothing more on this subject.''' 

The Talmuds, being compiled by men of various talents 
and learning during a course of successive ages, contain, 
as we might justly expect, many highly figurative illustra- 
tions of Jewish opinions, many extravagant and absurd 
expositions of Scripture, and violent invectives against 
Christ and Christianity, with numberless fabulous relations 
and additions to Scripture facts. The English reader who 
wishes to form an opinion of the ridiculous fables and mon- 
strous absurdities, to be found in these volumes and other 
Rabbinical works, may consult the Rev. J. P. Stehelin's 
" Rabbinical Literature ; or, the Traditions of the 
Jews, contained in their Talmud and other mystical 
Writings.'" London, 1748, 2 vols., 8vo. — The Talmudic writ- 
ings have, of late, however, found an ingenious defender in 
Mr. Hyman Hurwitz, who, in an Essay prefixed to his 
" Hebrew Tales," has advocated the cause of the Hebrew 
writers with considerable ability and learning ; and in the 
" Hebrew Tales" themselves has presented the reader with 
several pleasing and important apologues, selected from 
their writings, and conveyed in an elegant and spirited 
translation. 

But whatever may be the judgment formed of the con- 
tents of the Talmuds, it must be matter of regret to every 
candid lover of literature, that they should have been so 
frequently and vigorously prohibited and suppressed ; for, 
" if the Talmud was received with great applause by the 
Jews," says the Rev. J. P. Stehelin, "the Christians 
looked upon it as a book very pernicious, abounding with 
ridiculous fables, insignificant decisions, and manifest con- 

* Dr. Adam Clarke. 



RABBINICAL WRITINGS. 27 

tradictions. The Emperor Justinian in his 14th Novel ; 
Lewis the Saint, King of France in the year 1240. ; 
Philip IV., King of Spain ; the Popes Gregory IX. ; 
Innocent IV. ; Honorius IV. ; John XXII. ; Clement 
VI.; Julius III.; Paul IV.; Pius V. ; Gregory XIII. ; 
Clement VIII. ; Sec, forbade the reading of it. The 
Cardinal Inquisitors at Rome, by a decree made in the 
year 1563 ; and confirmed afterwards, in the year 1627, 
ordered all the copies of it to be burnt. In consequence 
of which, the famous library of the Jews at Cremona was, 
in the year 1569, plundered, and about 12,000 copies, as 
well of the Talmud, as of other Rabbinical books, commit- 
ted to the flames." (Pref. p. 27.)* 

Towards the close of the tenth or the commencement of 
the eleventh century, the Talmud was translated into Arabic 
by order of Haschim II., Caliph of Cordova, who com- 
mitted the translation to R. Joseph, the disciple of R. 
Moses, usually called Moses clad with a sack, from having 
been thus meanly clothed when his great learning and 
talents were first discovered. 

2— THE TARGUMS. 

The Chaldee word Targum means translation or inter- 
pretation, but is chiefly appropriated to the versions or 
translations of the Scriptures into the East-Aramaean or 
Chaldee dialect. For, after the Babylonish captivity, it was 
the practice of the Jews, that when the Law was " read 
in the synagogue every Sabbath-day," in pure Hebrew, 
an explanation was subjoined to it in Chaldee, in order 
to render it intelligible to the people, who had but an imper- 
fect knowledge of the Biblical Hebrew. — There are ten 
Targums or Paraphrases still extant, on different parts of 
the Old Testament : These are, 

* See also "Illustrations of Biblical Literature," vol. i. p. 184; ii. 
pp. 179, 479; iii. p. 20. 



28 TALMUDICAT, AND 

■1. The Targum qf Onkelos ; which was probably executed 
about the time of the Christian era, or a few years previously, 
as Onkelos, who was a Jew by birth and highly esteemed for 
his learning and probity, is said to have died eighteen 
years before the destruction of Jerusalem. " It is a strictly 
literal version, word for word, of the original text 1 ' of the 
Hebrew Pentateuch, into pure Chaldee. It was printed 
with the Pentateuch, in folio, 1482, Bonon. — The best 
edition will be found in Buxtorf 's Hebrew Bible, 2 vols, 
Basil, 1620 ; or in the London Polyglott, vol. i. taken 
from the above, London, 1657, 6 vols, folio. 

2 The Tar gum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, on the Prophets ; 
that is, on Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, called by 
the Jews the former Prophets ; — and Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel, and the twelve minor Prophets, called the latter 
Prophets. — " This Targum is a paraphrase rather than a 
version, and contains many of the writer's own glosses on 
the text ; besides which, several stories are inserted which 
discredit the work." — The author, Jonathan the son of 
Uzziel, who was nearly contemporary with Onkelos, is 
said to have been educated in the school of Rabbi Hillel, 
grandfather to Gamaliel, at whose feet the Apostle Paul 
was "brought up." — To attach the greater authority to this 
Targum, the Jews assert, that, whilst its author was com- 
posing it, there was an earthquake for forty leagues around 
him ; and, that if a bird happened to pass over him, or 
a fly to alight on his paper whilst writing, it was imme- 
diately consumed by fire from heaven, without any injury 
being sustained either in the Rabbit person or his paper ! 
The earliest printed edition of part of this Targum was 
that published with the Prophets Priores, folio, Leirtz, 
1494; but the whole was published by Buxtorf in his 
Hebrezv Bible, folio, 2 vols., 1620. This, and the London 
Polyglott, contain the best editions of this Targum. 

3. The Targum of the Pseudo-Jonathan, so called from 
being falsely ascribed to Jonathan Ben Uzziel, from whose 



RABBINICAL WRITINGS. 29 

paraphrase of the Prophets it differs so exceedingly both in 
style and diction, as well as in the frequent introduction of 
legendary stories, and occurrences long subsequent to the 
time of Jonathan, as to place its pseudo character beyond 
a doubt. — It is a diffuse and paraphrastic version of the 
Pentateuch, and was first printed at Venice, and afterwards 
at Basle. Since then it has been printed at Hanover, 1614, 
and at Amsterdam, with the Targums of Onkelos and 
Jerusalem and the Commentary of R. Solomon Jarchi : — 
It was translated into Latin, in the sixteenth century, 
by Anthony Ralph de Chevalier. 

4 The Jerusalem Targum ; so denominated from being 
written in the dialect of Jerusalem, or that which was 
spoken by the Jews after their return from the Babylonish 
Captivity. The author and date of it are unknown, but 
it does not appear to have been written earlier than the 
seventh century, and some have thought not till the seventh 
or eighth, or even the ninth century. This Targum is not 
a continued paraphrase of the entire Pentateuch, on which 
it is written, but of certain parts only, occasionally omitting 
whole verses or chapters, and sometimes offering explana- 
tions of single words or sentences ; it has therefore been 
supposed, by several learned philologers and critics, to 
have been compiled by various authors, and formed from 
extracts and collections. It was translated into Latin by 
Chevalier, and by Francis Taylor. — This Targum was 
published by Buxtorf in his Great Rabbinical Bible, Venice, 
1547, folio, and by Walton in the London Polyglott, 
1657, with an improved Latin translation. A Latin ver- 
sion was printed at London, 1649. 

5. The Targum of Rabbi Joseph, surnamed the Blind, 
ruler of an academy in Syria, who flourished in the fourth 
century. It is a paraphrase on the books of Chronicles 
written in the Jerusalem dialect. The best edition of this 
Targum, is that published by David Wilkins, from a 
C 



30 TALMUDICAL AND 

manuscript in the University library at Cambridge, 
Amstel. 1715, 4fo. 

6. The Targum on certain books of the Cetubim, or Ha- 
giographa or Holy Writings,* viz. The Psalms, Proverbs, 
and Job ; is ascribed by some Jewish writers to Rabbi Joseph 
the Blind, though others affirm the author to be unknown. 
The style of it is barbarous and unequal, and intermixed 
with Syriac, and Greek, and Latin words, so that none but 
the most skilful even of the Jews can read it. — It has been 
published in Latin by Arias Montanus and others. 

7. The Tar gum on the Megilloth, or books of Ecclesiastes, 
Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations of Jeremiah, and 
Esther. The dialect is that of Jerusalem, and appears not 
to have been written earlier than the sixth century. The 
author of it is unknown. 

8, 9, 10. Targums on the book of Esther. — Of these three 
Targums, the first has been printed in the Antwerp Poly- 
glott, the second in the London Polyglott, and a Latin 
version of the third by Francis Taylor, London, 1655. — 
The first is said to be the least diffuse, and the least 
corrupted by legendary fables and traditions. They are 
all of late date, and their authors uncertain. 

^.—DIGESTS OF HEBREW JURISPRUDENCE. 

Of this kind are the Compendiums and Abridgments of 
the Mishna or Talmuds. Notices of the titles and authors of 
most of these will be found in Buxtorf s Bibliotheca Rab- 
binica, connected with his work De Abbreviaturis Hebraicis. 
Franeq. 1696, &vo. Among these are, — >dq^n Alphesi, 
compiled by R. Isaac Ben Reuben, who died A. D. 1103, 
and printed at Cracow, 1597, in folio, with the Commen- 

* The books of Scripture denominated Ceiubhn by the Jews, and Hagio- 
graplia by the Greeks, include the Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon 
Ruth, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Ecclesiastcs, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehe- 
miah, and Chronicles. 



RABBINICAL WRITINGS. 31 

taries of RR. Solomon Jarchi, Jonas and Nissim; — nty» 
Jsheri, composed by R. Asher, who died at Toledo, A. D. 
1328; — and nun ttittfo Mishneh Torali, by Joseph 
Karro, printed at Venice, 1577, in folio , a work in great 
repute among the Jews. — But the digest most esteemed both 
by Jews and Christians, is the great work of Maimonidcs, 
entitled rrptn V Yad Chazdkdh, or The Strong Hand, 
in which the whole Talmud is compendiously and 
systematically abbreviated and explained in elegant and easy 
Hebrew. — It was printed at Venice in 4 vols, folio, 1574 ; 
and again at Amsterdam, 4 vols, folio, 1702. A list of the 
titles or sections of each volume, pointing out those that 
have been translated into Latin, with the names^of the 
translators, is given by Dr. Wotton in his " Miscellaneous 
Discourses relating to the traditions and usages of the 
Scribes and Pharisees," &c. — Vol. ii.pp. 273 — 277, London, 
1718, 8vo. 

Towards the close of the seventeenth century, M. Col- 
bert, the great patron of letters under Lewis XIV. King of 
France, engaged M.Lewis de Compiegne deVeil, a learned 
converted Jew, to translate the whole of this work into 
Latin. In 1678, he printed nine titles or sections, in Latin, 
at Paris, in a quarto volume, under the title of Majemoni- 
dis Tractatus de Cidtu Divino ; reprinted in Crenii Fasci- 
culi — Fascic. 6. 7. Rotterdam, 1696, 8vo. — with the addi- 
tion of three other titles or sections by the same translator. 
Having embraced Protestantism, M. De Veil came to 
England about the year 1680, and proceeding with his 
work, published six new titles or sections, which he entitled 
Mqjemonides de Sacrificiis, London, 1683, Mo. to which 
he subjoined the title or section of Consecration of Nczo 
Moons and Intercalations, printed fourteen years before at 
Paris. He also translated and published Abarbanel's 
Preface to his Commentary on Leviticus, and other works 
c 2 



32 TALMUDICAL AND 

of a similar nature. It must, however, be regretted that his 
design of translating and publishing the whole of Maimoni- 
des's Yad, was never completed, for want of greater encou- 
ragement, since the translation of the whole would have 
afforded an easy and useful introduction to a knowledge of 
Talmu die theology and jurisprudence, which, as Dr. Light- 
foot has clearly shown in his Hora Hebraica et Talmudicte, 
and other works, may be rendered eminently useful' in 
elucidating the peculiar phraseology of the New Testament. 

4.— COMMENTARIES ON THE SCRIPTURES. 

The most celebrated Jewish Commentators, are R. 
Solomon Jarchi, R. Abram Aben Ezra, R. David Kimchi, 
R. Moses Bar Nachman, R. Levi Ben Gersom, R. Saa- 
dias, and R. Isaac Abarbanel or Abravanel. 

R. Solomon Isaaci or Iaiichi, called also RasM, by 
an abbreviation of his name, was born in France, at the 
commencement of the twelfth century. He devoted him- 
self to the study of the Scriptures and the Talmud ; and 
visiting Italy, Greece, Palestine, Persia, Tartary, Russia, 
Germany, and other foreign countries, embraced every 
opportunity of acquiring information relative to Rabbinical 
literature, which he employed with great applause in his 
academical disputations after his return from his travels. 
His Commentaries are highly esteemed by the Jews, who 
designate him, the Prince of Commentators ; but, being 
obscure in their style and interspersed with Talmudical 
fictions, they are less regarded by Christians. He died at 
Treves, in 1180, and his remains were conveyed to Prague, 
in Bohemia. 

R. Asram Aben Ezra, surnamed the Wise, was a 
native of Spain. He is said to have been an excellent 
astronomer, philosopher, physician, poet and grammarian, 
as well as a valuable interpreter of Scripture, and intimately 



RABBINICAL WRITINGS. 33 

acquainted with the Jewish Cabala. His expositions being 
literal and grammatical, are highly valued both by Jews 
and Christians. He died about A. D. 1174. 

R. Davtd Kimchi, called from a technical abbreviation 
of his name Radack, was born in the province of Narbonne, 
at that time subject to Spain : this is the reason why 
Kimchi is generally accounted a Spaniard. His father, a 
learned author, was the virulent enemy of the Christians, 
but, happily, was not followed by his son in the bitter oppo- 
sition manifested in his various writings. He was the able 
and successful defender of Maimonides, especially in the 
famous dispute between the French and Spanish Jews, 
relative to the More Nevochim ; (See Life of Maimo- 
nides, p. 19 ante;) and, as a commentator, secured public 
approbation by his sedulous attention to the grammatical 
sense of the Sacred Scriptures ; his Commentaries on the 
Psalms and on Isaiah have been noticed with peculiar 
approbation. — He flourished about A. D. 1190. 

R. Moses Bar Nachman, frequently called Ramban, 
from the abbreviation of his name, and sometimes also 
Nachmanides, was born at Gerona, in Catalonia, about 
A. D. 1194. After studying Law and Physic, he applied 
himself to the mysteries of the Cabala, and became one of 
its most strenuous advocates. His Commentaries are con- 
sequently full of Cabalistic and allegorical expositions. 
His reputation in his native country was exceedingly great, 
but towards the close of life he exchanged his honours for 
retirement, and withdrew to Jerusalem, where he resided 
till his death, after having built a synagogue. The time of 
his decease is uncertain, different authors placing it in 
different years. 

R. Levi Ben Gersom, or Ralbag> was a native of 
Provence, in France, though of Spanish extraction, Moses 
Bar Nachman being his maternal grandfather. He was a 
physician by profession, but, being fond of theological pur- 
suits, wrote largely on various topics of divinity, and com- 



34 



TALMUDICAL AND 



piled a Commentary esteemed for its historical, literal, and 
philosophical explanations : his Exposition of the Penta- 
teuch is that which is the most generally valued. He died 
at Perpignan, A. D. 1370. 

R. Saadias, surnamed Gaon, or the Excellent, was a 
native of Al Fiumi, in Egypt, where he was born about 
A. D. 892. He became Rector of the Academy of Sora, 
and General Superintendent of the Babylonian schools in 
927, and discharged his important trust with considerable 
honour and success. He was the author of a " literal and 
faithful" Arabic translation of the Old Testament, or 
certain portions of it, besides writing Commentaries on 
Job, Daniel, and the Song" of Solomon, and composing 
several Grammatical and other works. He died A. D. 
942. 

R. Isaac Abarbanel or Abravanel, was a Portu- 
guese Jew, born at Lisbon, A. D. 1437. His father, who 
was a person of considerable rank, gave him the most 
liberal Jewish education, and such were his talents and 
improvement, that he was occasionally consulted by 
Alphonsus V. of Portugal. But on the decease of that 
sovereign, persecution raged with such violence against the 
Jews, that Abarbanel was obliged to fly into Italy, and 
from thence to various other places ; and, after a life of 
chequered fortune, he died at Venice, A.D. 1508, aged 71. 
His writings, which are voluminous, including his Com- 
mentary, are held inconsiderable estimation both by his 
own nation, and by Christians. From his rank and birth, 
he is sometimes called Don Isaac Abarbanel. 

Separate editions have been published of the principal 
Commentaries of the preceding authors : and most of them 
will be found accompanying the Great Bibles published by 
D. Bomber^ and J. Buxtorf. 



RABBINICAL WRITINGS. 35 



5— THE MASORA. 



The Masora is a system of criticism invented by 
Jewish theologians to preserve the true reading of the 
sacred text. The Hebrew doctors assert, that when God 
gave the Law to Moses, on Mount Sinai, he taught him, 
first, its true reading, and, secondly, its true interpreta- 
tion ; the former of which is the subject of the Masora ; 
the latter of the Mishna and Gemara. " This system is 
one of the most artificial, particular, and extensive com- 
ments ever written on the Word of God ; for there is not 
one word in the Bible that is not the subject of a particular 
gloss, through its influence : Their vowel-points alone add 
whole conjugations to the language. The Masorites or 
Mazoretes, as the inventors and perfecters of this system 
are called, were the first who distinguished the books and 
sections of the books of Scripture into verses. They num- 
bered not only the chapters and sections, but the verses, 
words, and letters of the text, and marked the middle 
verse of each; the amount of these enumerations they 
placed at the end of each book respectively, either in 
numeral letters, or some symbolical word formed out of 
them. They have also marked whatever irregularities 
occur in any of the letters of the Hebrew text, such as the 
different size of the letters, their various positions and 
inversions, &c. endeavouring to find out reasons for these 
irregularities, and pointing out the mysteries which they 
supposed to be in them ; they are also regarded as the 
authors of the Keri and Ketib, or marginal corrections of 
the text in the Hebrew Bibles. 

The Masora, or collection of critical notes upon the text 
of the Hebrew Bibles, was at first written in separate rolls, 
but afterwards was abridged in order to place it in the 
margin. This abridgment was called the little Masora, 
(Masora parva,) or the great Masora, (Masora magna,) 



3b TALMUDICAL AND 

according as it was more limited or copious; and the 
omitted parts which were added at the end of the text, 
were denominated the final Masora, (Masora finalis.) The 
compilation of these Masoretic criticisms, is supposed to 
have been commenced about the time of the Maccabees, and 
to have been continued to about the year of Christ, 1030. 
The first printed edition of the Masora, was in Bom- 
berg's Great Hebrew Bible, printed at Venice, in 1526, in 
2 vols, folio, and again in 1549, under the direction of 
It. Jacob Ben Chaim, a learned Jew, of Tunis. A Latin 
translation of his celebrated preface may be seen in Dr. 
Kennicott's Second Dissertation, pp. 229 — 244. The 
Jews call the Masora, the Fence or Hedge of the Lazv, 
from its being a means of preserving it from corruption and 
alteration, 

6'.— THE CABALA. 

The Cabala is a mystical mode of expounding the Law, 
called by the Jews, the soul of' the soul of the Lata, many of 
them preferring it to the Scriptures, or Mishna, which they 
term the soul of the Law. It was delivered to Moses, say 
the Hebrew doctors, by the Divine Author of the Law, 
who not only favoured him with the Oral Explanation of 
the Law or Mishna, but also added a mystical interpre- 
tation of it, to be transmitted, like the Mishna, by tra- 
dition, to posterity. The Mishna, say they, explains the 
manner in which the rites and ceremonies of the Law are 
to be performed ; but the Cabala teaches the mysteries 
couched under those rites and ceremonies, and hidden in 
the words and letters of the Scriptures. They divide this 
mystical science into thirteen different species; and by 
various transpositions, abbreviations, permutations, com- 
binations, and separations of words, and from the figures 
and numerical powers of letters, imagine the Law suffi- 
cient to instruct the Cabalistic adept, in every art and 
science. 



RABBINICAL WRITINGS. ST 

The principal interpretations and commentaries of the 
Cabalists, are contained in the book Zohar, said to have 
been written by Rabbi Simeon Ben Jocbai, who died about 
A. D. 120 ; but it is probably of a much later date. An 
edition of it was printed at Mantua, 1558, 4ifo. and another 
at Cremona, 1559, folio. Those English readers who 
wish for further information relative to the Cabala, may 
consult Basnage's History of the Jeivs, B. iii. c. x — xxviii. 
pp. 184—256. London, 1708, folio,— and Gaffarel's 
Unheard-of Curiosities, passim, 8vo. both of them trans- 
lated from the French.* 

* See Surenhusii Mischna, in Pwefat. — Waltoni Prolegomena. — Basnage's 
History of the Jews — Buxtorfii Bibliotheca Rabbinica.— Relandi Analecta 
Rabbinica. — Levi's Ceremonies of the Jews. — Kennicott's Dissertations on 

the State of the Printed Hebrew Text Lewis's Hebrew Antiquities. — 

Prideaux's Connexion of the History of the Old and New Testament. — 
Clarke's Succession of Sacred Literature Home's Introduction to the Cri- 
tical Study of the Scriptures, &c. &c. 



DISSERTATION II. 

ON THE 

ZABIAN IDOLATRY: 

on, 
ANCIENT WORSHIP OF THE STARS. 



^FABIANISM ; or, as it has been variously denominated 
Zabaism, Sabccanism, or Sabaism, consisted in the 
worship of the Sun and Moon, and of the other planetary 
bodies, and was the most ancient and most widely spread 
of any of the forms of Pagan idolatry. From the period 
of its origination, it appears to have been associated with 
superstitious rites and ceremonies of a symbolic or incanta- 
tory nature, and not unfrequently of the most obscene and 
revolting character, varying according to the circumstances 
and habits of the people by whom they were practised. By 
the Jews, these idolaters were designated, from the nations 
in their vicinity, and their superstitious practices con- 
demned, as " the ways of the Amorties" In subsequent 
ages when other modes of idolatry prevailed almost 
universally, this more early practice was denominated 
Zabianism, most probably from the Hebrew word Nnv 
(tzaba, a host,) the sun, and moon, and stars being usually 
called the Host of Heaven* 

* Pocockii Specimen Hist. Arab. p. 139. 



WORSHIP OF THE STARS. 39 

Intimations are given in the Holy Scripture?, that 
this deviation from the worship of the One True God, 
and that its attendant practices, took place at a very 
early period. Job vindicates himself from all suspicion 
of idolatry by the most solemn asseverations : — " If I 
beheld the Sun when it shined, or the Moon walking in 
brightness, and my heart hath been secretly enticed, 
or my mouth hath kissed my hand : this also were an ini- 
quity to be punished by the judge; for I should have 
denied the God that is above." (Job xxxi. 26 — 28) 
From this passage Dr. Hales argues, that Zabianism was 
at that period punishable by the public law ; and the Rev. 
G. Townsend, in his learned Dissertations " On the 
Origin, Progress, and Decline of Idolatry,"* observes, 
that " Moses, it is well known, wrote the Pentateuch, to 
continue the knowledge of the true God among the 
Israelites. As they were surrounded by idolatry in its 
most corrupt and odious form, he never loses sight of its 
superstitious observances. Unless, indeed, we understand 
the history of the times when Moses wrote, we lose much 
of the beauty and interest of his narrative. In perusing 
the Pentateuch, we must never forget, that idolatry had 
become almost universal, and that Moses, by his laws, as 
well as by his example, constantly endeavoured to guard 
his people from the contagion. Many expressions there- 
fore, which otherwise, in a narrative so brief, as that of 
Moses, might appear unnecessary, were, at the time they 
were written, of the utmost consequence. Thus, when in 
the account of the Creation, Moses adds, ' He made the 
stars also ;' — and, ' thus the heavens were finished, and all 
the host of them ;' he evidently means to say to the wor- 

* Classical Journal, No. XLVI. p. 332, and No. XLIV. p. 324. See 
also, " Young's Historical Dissertation on Idolatrous Corruptions in Reli- 
gion," vol. i. pp. 30 — 35. 



40 



ZABIAN IDOLATRY, 



shippers of the Tsabaoth,* Your gods are inferior to 
Jehovah, for they are the work of his hands." 

Some learned men have even supposed, that the worship 
of the heavenly bodies prevailed, almost universally, at the 
the time of the general Deluge, and was the occasion of 
the destruction of the old world by that dreadful judg- 
ment. This was the opinion of Onkelos, Maimonides, 
and other celebrated Rabbins, who interpret the words 
relating to the birth of Enos, (Gen. vi. 11.) " Then 
began men to call on the name of the Lord ;" by translat- 
ing them, " In those days men seceded from calling on the 
name of the Lord," by which they understand, " that the 
most glorious name of God was then given unto creatures." 
In this interpretation, they are followed by the very learned 
Selden. Lightfoot also translates the passage, " Then 
began profaneness in calling on the name of the Lord :"and 
Heidegger, in his eighth Dissertation on the Theology of 
the Cainites, and the Antediluvian Idolatry, adduces 
many arguments to prove that Idolatry was the corrup- 
tion before the flood. This view of the perversion of 
Divine worship by the Antediluvians, has likewise been 
thought to be forcibly corroborated by the degree of per- 
fection attained by the Chaldeans at so very early a period 
after the Deluge, and at a time when the Postdiluvians 
must have been much occupied in choosing their new 
settlements. " Burnet, justly observes in his Archseolo- 
gia," says Mr. Town send, " that, ' it is reasonable to believe 
that the Antediluvian fathers were not utterly foolish, and 
ignorant of the sciences. Of these, whatever they might 
have been, Noah was the heir.' Whatever the aged 
Patriarchs knew, was most probably communicated to 
Noah. He was the inhabitant of both worlds, and trans- 
ferred the lamp of the sciences from one to the other. Mr. 
Maurice too, in his i Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon, 1 
very justly observes, (p. 22,) ( The very early proficiency of 

* Or Host of Heaven Ed. 



WORSHIP OF THE STARS. 41 

the Egyptians and Chaldeans in astronomy, can only be 
accounted for by the supposition that a considerable por- 
tion of the Antediluvian arts and sciences, among which 
must be numbered astronomy, was, by the permission of 
Providence, preserved on tablets of stone to illumine the 
ignorance and darkness of the earliest Postdiluvian ages.' 
To suppose that our Antediluvian ancestors, for sixteen 
hundred years together, could be uninterested spectators of 
the celestial bodies, would be to imagine them destitute of 
common curiosity."* 

Gale (Court of the Gentiles) supposes the Zabian ido- 
latry to have arisen from indistinct and misunderstood tra- 
ditions ; his words are : — " It will be necessary to consider, 
though but cursorily, the rise and progress of all Idol-Gods 
and Idolatry : all of which is comprehended, by some learned 
men, under these two common heads of Zabaism and 
Hellenism. Zabaism, so termed from the Zabii, a sect of 
Chaldean philosophers, was the first and more natural 
piece of idolatry, which consisted in a religious worship 
given unto the sun, moon, and stars, stiled in Scripture, 
the Hosts of Heaven. Hellenism, which superadded hereto 
an infinity almost of fictitious and coined gods, was of 
more late date, and proper to the Grecians, most skilful 
in the art of making gods. As for Zabaism, which gave 
a Deity and Divine worship to the sun, moon, and stars, 
it began very early, even in the infancy of the church, and 
had made good progress in the world about the age of 
Job and Moses, as appears by Job xxxi, 26, 27 ; as also 
by Deut. xi. 6. — and as Owen, (Theolog. Lib. 8. c. 4, p. 
188, &c.) observes, this Pagan humour, of idolizing these 
glorious celestial bodies, seems to have had its rise from 
some broken traditions, conveyed by the Patriarchs touch- 
ing the dominion of the sun by day, and of the moon by 

* Classical Journal, No. XLII. pp. 323, 324.— Young On Idolatrous 
Corruptions in Religion, vol. i. pp. 7j 8, 15, Lond. 1734, 8vo. — Waltoni 
Polyglott. torn. i. — Onkelos in Gen. iv. 26. 



42 ZABIAN IDOLATRY* 

night; according to Gen. i. 16 and Psalm cxxxvi. 7, 8, 0, 
where the sun and moon are stiled the ' greater lights 1 not 
only by condescension to vulgar capacities, as some will 
have it, but from their peculiar office, the Sun being ap- 
pointed to govern by day, and the Moon by night. So 
that albeit the Moon be, in regard of its substance and 
borrowed light, inferior to many of the stars, yet, by virtue 
of its office, it is above them, and so termed a ' greater 
light." 1 Now it is very probable, that the fame of this 
dominion, conferred by God on the Sun and Moon, was 
diffused amongst the Gentiles, first in the oriental parts; 
whence their corrupt imaginations, very prone to idolatry, 
conferred a deity on these creatures which to them seemed 
most glorious. Thence they termed the Sun "[bn Moloch, 
or Melee, the King; also bys. Baal, the Lord; and bx 
El, God, (whence the Greek l \\ios the Sun :) likewise 
D^ottf b$z Bel Sames, Lord of Heaven ; and \vby "eXiovv 
Eliun, the Most High, all which are names, which 
the Scripture gives the true God of Israel, and, without all 
peradventure, had their original thence. 11 * 

The almost immemorial antiquity of this species of idola- 
try is not only maintained by the concurrent testimony of 
the most ancient accredited authors, profane as well as sacred, 
but also by the remains, which have been discovered in 
various countries, especially in the East, of symbolic represen- 
tations of sidereal objects of religious veneration. Of these, 
the engraved cylindrical signets recovered and brought 
from the East by Capt. Lockett, Mr. Rich, and others, 
from the sites of the ancient Babylon and Nineveh, and 
from Phenicia, and deposited in various European museums, 
are curious and interesting specimens. Landseer, in his 
erudite " Sabasan Researches, 11 supposes these signets to 

* Gale's Court of the Gentiles, Parti. Book ii, Chap. I, pp. 105, IOC— 
Oxon. 1CC9, ito. 



WOKSHIF OF THE STARS. 43 

have been engraved for the purpose of exhibiting the state 
of the heavens at the time of the birth of the persons 
to whom the signets respectively belonged ; " and hence the 
astrological priest who registered the birth of a Babylonian 
child, also cast his nativity ; and, in so doing, assigned to 
him the subject of his future signet." — Some of the horosco- 
pical signets which he has examined, he regards as being 
more than three thousand years old, and defends the conjec- 
ture by learned astronomical calculations. — " There is a 
remarkable conformity," he observes, " between our antique 
cylindrical monuments and the earlier poets, prophets, and 
astronomers, with regard to the comparative veneration, in 
which the extra-zodiacal asterisms were held in the remoter 
periods of time : and the impressive coincidence at which we 
here arrive, between the art and literature of far distant 
ages and nations — between that practice of the Chaldean 
astronomers which may be safely inferred from the more 
ancient of the cylindrical engravings; and that habitual 
observation of the stars which is recorded of the patriarchs, 
prophets, and philosophers, of the Sacred Scriptures and 
of Greece, — I repeat, the impressive coincidence between 
these, at which we here arrive, — is probably the best of all 
evidence that is now attainable, on a subject so remote in 
time and place, and so recondite in its nature."* 

Dr. Long, whose great astronomical knowledge rendered 
him deservedly celebrated, expresses a similar opinion of 
the antiquity of the Zabian idolatry : " The most ancient 
idolaters," says he, " are, with great probability, thought by 
some learned men to have received the name of Zabii from 
worshipping the host of heaven ;" and subsequently adds, 
" I have before observed, that Zabaism, or the worship of the 
host of heaven, was the most ancient kind of idolatry ; the 
custom of deifying dead men was later, though that also is 

* Landseer's SabEean Researches, pp. 55, 104, 242, 250, 251, 327, «* 
passim. — London, 1823, 4lo. 



4i ZABIAN IDOLATRY, 

very ancient."* The antiquity of Uranolatria, or wor- 
ship of the heavenly bodies, is also maintained by Selden, 
(De Diis Syris, c. 3,) Beyer, (Additamenta ad cap. 3. 
Joh. Seldeni,) Pococke, {Specimen Historic Arahum, 
Nota, p. 138,) Hyde, (Hist Relig. Vet. Persar. c. 1,) 
Prideaux, (Connection of the History of the Old and New 
Testament, p. 1. b. hi,) and other learned Orientalists. 

Zabianism, or Sabaeanism, was not only the most ancient 
species of idolatry, but extended its influence more univer- 
sally than any other. " This religion," says Mr. Young, 
" having taken its rise in Chaldaea, was soon carried into 
Egypt, and from thence into Greece. It spread itself to 
the most distant parts of the world, and infected not only 
the eastern and western Scythians or Tartars,. but the 
Mexicans too, for there the Spaniards found it when they 
first came amongst them. ,-, -f- Traces of this worship are still 
found in the island of Ceylon, where it is termed Baliism, 
a word of uncertain etymology, but which will remind an 
antiquary of the names of Baal, Bel, and Bal, given to the 
sun,! by tne Chaldeans and other ancient nations, and the 
Saltan or Bealteine fires of Ireland and Highlands of 
Scotland. § These Singhalese worshippers of the stars are 
few in number, and generally conceal their opinions. " The 
worship consists, entirely, of adoration to the heavenly 
bodies; invoking them in consequence of the supposed 
influence they have on the affairs of men. The (Singhalese) 
priests are great astronomers, and believed to be thoroughly 
skilled in the power and influence of the planets.'" Among 
the valuable paintings, illustrative of the religious opinions 
of the native inhabitants of Ceylon, brought from thence by 

* Long's Astronom. B. ii, chap. 2, p. 179 : B. iii, chap. 3, p. 194. 

-J* Young on Idolatrous Corruptions in Religion, Vol. i. p. 35. 

£ See Selden De Diis Syris, Syntag. 2. et Additamenta Beyerii. Amst. 
1G80. \2mo. 

§ See Ency. Perth, in voc. and the authorities referred to in that work, and 
Toland's History of the Druids, Let. 2. pp. 101— lOfi. 



WORSHIP OF THE STARS. 45 

Sir Alexander Johnstone, are several referring to the worship 
just described.* 

Abulpharagius affirms, that the major part of the ancient 
Greeks were Zabians, (Graecorum plerique Sabii erant,) 
worshipping the stars, and forming idolatrous representa- 
tions of them.-f- This opinion is supported by R. P. 
Knight, Esq. in "An Inquiry into the Symbolical Language 
of Ancient Art and Mythology," in which he remarks, 
" The primitive religion of the Greeks, like that of all other 
nations not enlightened by Revelation, appears to have 
been elementary ; and to have consisted in an indistinct 
worship of the sun, the moon, the stars, the earth, and 
the waters, or rather to the spirits supposed to preside over 
those bodies, and to direct their motions, and regulate 
their modes of existence."^ In this he follows the early 
Heathen and Christian writers, who assert that the prin- 
cipal persons among the ancient Greeks held the sun, and 
moon, and stars, to be gods ; which, Plato assures us, was 
the species of worship prevalent among the greater part of 
barbarous nations.§ Landseer, further states, that the 
" ancient Sabaean faith in the stars, is well known to have 
reached from the lands of Nimrod and Jemsheed, west- 
ward through that of Canaan, to the shores of the Medi- 
terranean : southward to the straits of Babel-mandel, and 
the Erythrean ocean ; and northward to the farthest 
extremities of Scythia^l 

The superstitions accompanying this mode of idolatry, 
varied among different nations and at different periods, as 
is fully proved by the mythology of the Greeks, and 

* For this information I am indebted to the Rev. Benjamin Clough, an 
intelligent and learned Wesleyan Missionary, in Ceylon, one of the trans- 
lators of the Cingalese Scriptures. 

■f Greg. Abul Pharajii Hist. Dynast, a Pocock, p. G, Oxon, 1GG3, 4to. 

X Classical Journal, No. XLV. March, 1821, p. 1. 

§ Eusebii Praeparat. Evang. Lib. i. c. 9, and iii, c. 2. torn. I. Colonias 

1688, folio. 

|| Landseer's Sabcean Researches, Essay viii. p. 2G4. 

D 



46 ZABIAN IDOLATRY, 

Romans, and others, as detailed by their best and most 
authentic historians, as well as by those who have 
expressly treated upon the rites and ceremonies of the 
ancient idolatries. Eusebius, in his " Praeparatio Evan- 
gelica, 11 has discussed this point with considerable learning ; 
and the names of Grotius, Jablonsky, Bryant, Leland, 
and many others among the moderns, are too well known 
to need eulogium. I shall, therefore, only add from Gene- 
ral Vallancey, who supposes Ireland to be the ancient 
Thule, and to have derived its idolatrous worship from 
the Carthaginians, that, " The chief deity of the Cartha- 
ginians was Baal, Beal, or Bel, the Sun, to whom they 
offered human sacrifices. The chief deity of the Heathen 
Irish was Beal, the sun, to whom also they offered human 
sacrifices. The sacrifice of beasts was at length substituted 
among the Carthaginians ; the same custom, we learn from 
the ancient Irish historians, prevailed in this country. 
The month of May is, to this day, named Mi Beal 
teinne, i. e. the month of Seal's fire ; and the first day of 
May is called la Beal teinne, i. e. the day of Beal's fire. 
These fires were lighted on the summits of hills, in honour 
of the sun ; many hills in Ireland still retain the name of 
Cnoc greinne, i. e, the hill of the Sun ; and on all these 
are to be seen the ruins of Druidish altars. The Cartha- 
ginians did not represent Baal, as they had him before 
their eyes daily in all his glory ; they made their addresses 
immediately to him according to the ancient rite. No idol 
of Baal is ever mentioned by the ancient Irish historians, 
or was any ever found since Christianity was introduced. 11 * 
To show the peculiar fitness of the Mosaic Ritual for 
eradicating the opinions and practices of the Zabii from 
the congregation of Israel, forms an important part of 
the design of Maimonides in the ensuing treatise trans- 
lated from his celebrated More Nevochim, or " Teacher 
of the Perplexed. 11 For this interesting exposition, he 

* Essay on the Antiquity of the Irish Language, p. 19, 1772, 8t'o. 



WORSHIP OF THE STARS, 47 

was peculiarly qualified by his extensive and intimate 
acquaintance with the works extant amongst the Egyp- 
tians and Arabians on the subject of the Zabian idolatry; 
his profound knowledge of the Talmudical and Rabbinical 
writings ; his opportunities of investigating the idolatries 
of Egypt during his residence in that country ; and his 
uncommon acuteness and energy of mind, joined to his 
patience in research and soundness in judgment. " Mai- 
monides, 1 ' observes Mr. Townsend, « was the first who en- 
deavoured to solve the mysteries which had so long per- 
plexed the world. He perused, he tells us, with great 
attention, all the ancient authors on the rise and progress 
of idolatry. He did this, to explain the reasons of the 
enactment of those ordinances and rites of the Jewish Law 
which appear to have no meaning, unless they are consid- 
ered in connexion with the idolatrous customs of the 
surrounding nations."*— The result of these investigations 
is comprised in the following treatise, which, with every 
allowance for Jewish prejudices, presents one of the best 
compendiums of expository remarks on many of the Mosaic 
Precepts, with which we are acquainted, and fully justifies 
the eulogiums which have been passed upon him by the 
learned of different ages and countries. 

* Classical Journal, No. XLIT. June, 1820, p. 322. 



D 2 



I 



DISSERTATION IIL 

ON 

THE ORIGINALITY 

OF THE 

INSTITUTIONS OF MOSES, 



T has been justly remarked by an ingenious writer, that 
they who supposeMoses himself to havebeen "the author 
of the institutions civil or religious that bear his name ; and 
that in framing them he borrowed much from the Egyptians- 
or other ancient nations, must never have compared them 
togther, otherwise they could not but have perceived many 
circumstances in which they differed most essentially from 
them all." — That a correspondence subsisted between some 
of the Mosaic ordinances and the customs of other people, 
is granted, but that they were derived from the practices of 
idolatrous nations appears inconsistent and absurd. The 
true source of the similarity is to be traced to those 
primitive revelations and patriarchal examples retained by 
the Israelites and corrupted by the Gentiles; — whilst the 
striking and radical opposition discoverable between the 
most important parts of their respective systems of worship 
and religious service, mark, with indubitable evidence, the 
design of the Deity to separate the one from the other. It 
is only necessary to give to the following instances of the 
dissimilarity betwixt the Laws and Institutions of Moses 
and those of other nations, the consideration they merit, 
to be fully convinced, that the Mosaic ritual was vastly 



ORIGINALITY OF THE INSTITUTIONS OF MOSES. 49 

superior to every other, and formed with too much con- 
trariety to other systems ever to have been borrowed from 
them. 

1. No heathen ever conceived an idea of so great an 
Object as that of the Institutions of Moses, which appears 
to have been nothing less than the instruction of all man- 
kind in the great doctrine of the Unity and Moral Govern- 
ment of God, as the Creator of the world, and the com- 
mon Parent of all the human race, in opposition to the 
polytheism and idolatry which then prevailed, which, 
besides being grossly absurd in its principles and leading to 
endless superstitions, threatened the world with a deluge 
of vice and misery. — For this purpose the Hebrew nation 
was placed in the most conspicuous situation, among all 
the great civilized nations of the earth, which were uni- 
versally addicted to idolatry of the grossest kind, to divina- 
tions, necromancy, and other superstitions of a similar 
nature, and practised as acts of religion ; some of their 
rites abominably licentious, and others most horribly cruel, 
yet enjoined as the necessary means of recommending the 
persons that performed them to the various objects of their 
worship. 

As all mankind imagined that their outward prosperity 
depended upon the observance of their respective religions, 
that of the Hebrew nation was made to do so in the most 
conspicuous manner as a visible lesson to all the world. 
They were to prosper beyond all other nations while they 
adhered to their religion, and to suffer in a manner equally 
exemplary and conspicuous in consequnce of their depar- 
ture from it. Of this, all mankind might easily judge. 

These great ideas occur in the sacred books of the 
Hebrews, and no where else. They are all distinctly advan- 
ced by Moses, and more fully unfolded in the writings of the 
later prophets. But certainly nothing so great and sublime 
could have been suggested to Moses, from any thing that he 
saw in Egypt, or could have heard of in other countries. 



50 ORIGINALITY OF THE 

I 2. In no system of Religion, besides that of Moses, was 
purity of Morals any part of it. All the heathen religions 
were systems of mere ceremonies, and the sole business of 
the Priests was to attend to those rites, which were so far 
from being favourable to morals, that they were of the most 
impure and abominable nature. 

The contrary to this appears, not only in the Ten Com- 
mandments, but in all the Writings of Moses. The purest 
morality, the most favourable to private and public happi- 
ness, was the principal and ultimate object of the whole 
system. Sacrifices, and ceremonial observances of every 
kind, are always represented as of no signification without 
morals. Such precepts as these, " Be ye holy, for I am 
holy;'' 1 — and, "What does the Lord require of thee, but 
to do justly, and to love mercy, and to w r alk humbly with 
ihj God ?" — could never have been borrowed from any 
heathen system of Religion. The Writings of Moses, and 
of the Prophets that succeeded him, are in these respects 
a great Original. 

3. No where in all the heathen world could Moses have 
heard of such a sublime WorsJiip, as that which he intro- 
duced. The Hebrews alone had one single object of their 
worship, one altar, one precise ritual, one only place for 
the meeting of the whole nation at the great public festivals. 
In no other country in the world were the 'public festivals 
instituted in commemoration of such great events, respecting 
their history and the divine origin of their religion. It is 
also peculiar to this nation, that directions for the celebra- 
tion of them were reduced to writing at the time of their 
institution, so that there never could be any uncertainty 
about the origin or the reasons of them. These festivals 
I were three, the Passover, on their deliverance from their 
1 state of servitude in Egypt, when the first-born of all the 
Egyptians were destroyed, and all theirs preserved ; the 
Pentecost, on the giving of the Law from Mount Sinai ; 



INSTITUTIONS OF MOSES. 51 

and the Feast of Tabernacles, in commemoration of their 
living in tents or booths during their travels through the 
Wilderness. 

No heathen festivals were so well adapted to important 
events as these. The festivals of the heathens were nume- 
rous and perplexing. More than sixty were celebrated by 
the Athenians ; the origin and reasons of their institution 
were uncertain, and none of them were to answer any 
important moral purpose- The heathen festivals were also 
in general celebrated in a manner the most disgusting to 
modesty and common sense. Even the wise Athenians cele- 
brated the festival of Coty tto with such rites, as demonstrat- 
ed that the object of their worship delighted in nothing so 
much as lewdness and debauchery. — Potters Antiquities of 
Greece, p. 409- 

It would be easy to multiply examples of the indecency 
and absurdity of the festivals of the heathen, and those of 
Oreece were chiefly borrowed from Egypt. Why did not 
Moses the same ? Such arts would no doubt have been 
acceptable to his people, naturally prone to sin like others ; 
and this is evident from his own history of the Israelites 
joining in the worship of Baal-Peor. So far, however, was 
the Jewish legislator from yielding to such compromising 
suggestions, that in the place of the infamous rites and 
orgies inseparable from Egyptian festivals, the Jewish 
festivals were united with inviolable principles of morality, 
which were constituted solemn acts of religion, and, in their 
purport and manner of observation, perfectly distinguished 
the Israelitish congregations from the other families of man- 
kind. 

4. In no other country was the Place, and other circum- 
stances of the public worship, so well calculated to inspire 
a profound respect for the object of it, as among the 
Hebrews. No heathen temple could be compared with the 
Temple of Solomon, or even the tabernacle of Moses, 
erected in the wilderness, designed only for temporary use. 



o2 



ORIGINALITY OF THE 



and portable. The dress and office of the High Priest, 
and the whole of the Ceremonials annexed to the Priesthood, 
were in the highest degree striking and impressive, and far 
beyond any thing of the kind in the heathen world. 

When the nation was in the wilderness, even then an 
order and solemnity were observed, for which there was 
no precedent. The place of the tabernacle was in the 
centre, each of the twelve tribes had its prescribed place on 
the North or South, the East or West side of it. The 
Levites had their station nearest to it, and were employed 
in taking it down, carrying, or erecting it. They were not, 
however, allowed to touch the most sacred utensils, this 
duty remained solely with the priests. To them also 
exclusively appertained the carrying the ark, the place of 
which was the Holy of Holies, and over which was the 
place where the immediate presence of God was manifested. 

How different from this were the most solemn processions 
of the heathens, when they carried the images of their gods 
from place to place, generally, at least, in the East, on the 
idea of giving them an airing, or amusing them with an 
excursion from their temples ! {Asiatic Researches, vol. i. 
p. 292.) In time of public danger, they made a public feast 
in the temples, and the statues of the gods were brought in 
rich beds with pillows, and placed in the most honourable 
parts of the temple, as the principal guests. — KenneWs 
Antiquities of Rome, p. 84. 

The Ark of the Hebrews was never removed on any 
such ideas as these. It contained no image to which such 
an excursion or entertainment could apply ; and, after the 
building of the temple, it was never on any occasion 
removed out of it. Before this it had, by the order of 
God, been carried by the pi'iests to the brink of the river 
Jordan, the waters of which were divided as their feet 
touched them ; and on some solemn occasions it was per- 
mitted to be carried as a token of the Divine presence ; 
and from the wonders thus wrought, the Hebrews must 



INSTITUTIONS OF MOSES. 58 

have had a much higher idea of the object of their worship, 
than any of the heathens could have of theirs. 

5. Sacrificing was a mode of worship more ancient than | 
idolatry, and instituted, as there are the strongest reasons I 
to believe, by the Deity himself, as soon as the guilt of I 
man made such an offering necessary. But this universal-' 
practice was greatly corrupted by the heathen, who intro- 
duced superstitious customs, thus teaching the worshippers 
to reverence and fear the creature rather than the Creator, 
all of which were excluded from the religion of the 
Hebrews ; while their sacrifices assumed a greatness, and 
excited an elevated hope, by manifesting that they were 
the pattern of heavenly things, and shadows of good things 
to come, when " a body should be prepared for him" who 
was the substance of them all. 

The heathen sacrifices were different according to the 
rank of the particular deity to whom they were offered. 
{Potter, p. 216.) No distinction of this kind was suffered to 
offend the Holy One of Israel. With the heathens there 
was an order of Priests called Haruspices, whose sole busi- 
ness it was to examine the entrails, especially the liver, 
and to divine success, or the contrary, from the appearance. 
No such superstition dishonoured the moral Governor of 
the world in the Hebrew ritual. 

We read of nothing among the heathen from which 
Moses could take such distinctions of offerings as we read 
in his institutions — The burnt-offerings, sin-offerings, 
peace-offerings, or of the heaving, or waving of them. 
These therefore, he could not borrow from them. These 
positive institutions by which the people were thus dis- 
ciplined, Christian believers now know, and the whole 
Jewish nation might know, answered a divine purpose, 
and, as a school-master, brought the worshippers to Christ. 

Lastly : Among all the Heathen, especially in the time 
of Moses, Human Sacrifices were considered as the most 



54 ORIGINALITY OF THE 

/ acceptable to the gods ; but in the law of Moses nothing is 
mentioned with greater abhorrence, and they are expressly 
declared to have been a principal cause of the expulsion of 
the idolatrous inhabitants of Canaan. The right of the 
Deity indeed, to claim the life which He has given, in 
any way that may please him, is evident, and is intimated 
by the command given to Abraham, to offer up Isaac. 
But when the faith of the Patriarch was proved, the offering 
was declined, and a ram substituted in his place. 

6. If the heathen had any Temples before the time of 
Moses, which is uncertain, and not probable, they were 
constructed in a very different manner from the tabernacle, or 
the temple of Solomon. We no where read of such divisions 
as that of the Hebrew temple ; of such a symbol of the 
divine presence as the covering of the Ark between the 
Cherubim, in the Holy of Holies; there was no table of 
shew-bread, nor such a candlestick as was in the holy 
place. The fire and the lamps, also, evidently had their 
use, as appointed by Moses, but though sacred, there was 
nothing in them to divert the reverence of the worshipper 
from the invisible Jehovah. This could not be said of the 
perpetual fires, either of the Persians, or of the Vestals at 
Rome : These were debasing superstitions. 

7. Both the Hebrews and the heathen allowed the Pri- 
vilege of Asylum to those who fled to their temples. But 
with the heathens this was carried to a length equally 
superstitious and dangerous to the community; because, 
whatever was the crime with which any person was charged, 
the criminal could not be apprehended, and much less could 
he be punished, without incurring the vengeance of the 
Deity, who, it was supposed, protected him. {Potter' 's 
Antiquities, p. 201.) But no person, charged with any 
crime, was protected by flying to the altar of the Hebrews, 
except till the cause could be heard by regular judges; 
when, if he appeared to be guilty, he was ordered to be 



INSTITUTIONS OF MOSES. 55 

taken from the altar itself, and put to death. Even the! 
City of Refuge could not protect him, who was found, 
upon inquiry, to have killed his neighbour with design. 

8. Had Moses copied any thing from the heathen, he 
would probably have introduced something of their Myste- 
ries, which were rites performed in secret, and generally in 
the night ; to which peculiar privileges were annexed, and 
which it was deemed the greatest crime to reveal. The 
most remarkable of these mysteries were the Eleusinian, 
which were celebrated at Athens every fourth year. 
Whatever these rites were, (and they were of a very sus- 
picious nature,) it was made death to reveal them, and if 
any person, not regularly initiated, was present at this 
exhibition, he was put to death without mercy. Vile as 
these mysteries must have been, according to the habits of 
the initiated, yet it was taken for granted, that those who 
had performed them, lived in a greater degree of happiness 
than other men, both before and after death. — Potters 
Antiquities, vol. i. p. 389- 

Nothing like this can be found in the Institutions of 
Moses. There was no secret in the Hebrew ritual. Every 
thing is described in the written law ; and though none 
but the Priests could enter the holy place, and none the 
Holy of Holies, besides the High Priest, every thing 
that was done by them there, is as particularly described, 
as what was to be done by the people without. 

9. The heathen had their Oracles, as well as the 
Hebrews ; but the difference between them was very great. 
With the Hebrews, the responses were in a clear, articulate 
voice, free from ambiguity, and given only on solemn 
occasions, and with a solemnity becoming a message from 
God. They were also perfectly gratuitous, and confined 
to no particular time. But the Oracles of the heathen 
were always obscure, and generally ambiguous, delivered 
in a frantic manner, only at particular seasons, and always 
attended with great expence. 



56 



ORIGINALITY OF THE 



10. The heathen had also their Purifications ; but how 
very different from those. of the Hebrews! Nothing was 
used by them for this purpose, but pure water, evidently 
emblematic of inward purity. The only obscure article, in 
this respect, was that prescribed for cleansing after the 
touch of a dead body, on which occasion the water was 
mixed with the ashes of a red heifer ; and certainly there 
was no precedent for this among the Egyptians, or any 
other nation- But the heathen used mixtures continually, 
and with such superstitious regard to particulars, as 
evidently taught the worshippers to reverence the creatures 
used, instead of the Creator. The purifications also among 
the Hebrews tended to recommend cleanliness, and conse- 
quently to promote health ; but some of the most sacred 
rites of the heathen were filthy and disgusting, — as the 
Tauribolium, in which the person so purified, was covered 
with blood, his hair and his garments full of it, and in this 
condition he continued as long as he could, without washing 
himself or changing his dress ! 

11. Religion directed the choice of proper articles of 
Food, both with the heathen and the Hebrews ; but with 
the latter, the most wholesome food was allowed, and 
nothing was forbidden for any reason which tended to 
nourish superstition. But no good reason can be given for 
the Egyptians abstaining from mutton, the Syrians from 
fish, the Hindoos from the flesh of cows, or the Priests, in 
some countries, from the flesh of animals of any kind. The 
only reasons given tended to superstition. The Hebrew 
priests also were not obliged to practise any peculiar 
austerities. They might drink wine, except during the 
time of their actual ministrations. They might marry and 
have families. The heathen priests on the contrary, 
{Potter, p. 391,) were obliged to submit to austerities 
equally superstitious, cruel, and debasing. 

12. Moses assigned no part of the national worship to 
Females, but in the heathen temples there were Priestesses 



INSTITUTIONS OF MOSES. 57 

as well as Priests, and the Oracle at Delphi was always 
delivered by a woman. In this respect a very striking differ- 
ence exists between the heathen and the Hebrew worship. 

13. Where, in all the w r orld, could Moses have obtained 
the idea of his Annual Fast, for the purpose of a general 
confession of sin ? Where could he find any thing like the 
striking lesson exhibited on that occasion, first of the 
dreadful wages of sin, and secondly of the removal of it, 
by the fine emblems of a goat sacrificed, as suffering the 
penalty, and another goat dismissed, over the head of 
which the confession had been made ? Many rites of the 
heathen were celebrated with the appearance of grief and 
deep affliction, but for no such moral purpose ; on the 
contrary, the worshippers soon passed to every species of 
licentiousness. Such were the festivals of Adonis in the 
East and in Greece^ but it was only a commemoration of 
his death in the first instance, and of his re-animation in the 
second. 

14. A weekly Sabbath, continually reminding the Hebrews 
of the Creation of the world in six days, as opposed to the 
general opinion of the Heathen, that the world had existed 
from eternity, without any intelligent author : — & Sabbatical 
Year, reminding them, that the country they occupied 
was not their own but God's, who only gave them the use 
of it under such terms as he thought proper : — and a 
Jubilee, (to be mentioned hereafter,) were institutions 
peculiar to the Hebrews, and what Moses could not have 
borrowed from any other nation. 

15. Had Moses borrowed any thing from the heathen, 
he could not have overlooked their various modes of Divi- 
nation, Sorcery, and Witchcraft ; their omens, their dis- 
tinctions of days into lucky and unlucky, &c. But so far 
are we from finding any thing of this kind in the writings 
of Moses, that they are spoken of with the greatest abhor- 
rence, and they who learn of the heathen, are ordered to 
be put to death. 



58 ORIGINALITY OF THE 

In fact, the truth of the Mosaic revelation appears, in 
few points more strongly and forcibly than in this ; for 
the edicts which were repeatedly enacted against every 
species of it, the peremptory statutes which interdicted 
wizards, soothsayers, and those pretending to familiar 
spirits, and forbad, as unworthy of the veracity of the 
God of Israel, every artifice by which the public mind had 
been led astray, are no unimportant vouchers of that inspi- 
ration which Moses claimed, being corroborative in every 
point of the legal mode of ascertaining the Divine will, by 
Urim and Thummim, which he records. The belief, 
indeed, of fatidical responses, appears to have been so 
deeply rooted, and to have acquired such strength from 
the long adoption of divination and oracles, that possibly 
the Israelites would have attached no credit to a system in 
which every mode of obtaining divine responses had been 
wanting ; but miracles, and visible proofs of the attending 
Deity, had so completely authenticated the disclosure of 
their law, that they were supplied with superabundant evi- 
dences, that the answers returned to the High Priest, 
within the precincts of the sanctuary proceeded, indubi- 
tably, from God. Hence, instead of wearing amulets, 
talismans, and other fancied repellents of evil, like their 
former oppressors, they were taught to seek protection in 
obedience to the divine commandments, and desired to 
bind the law of God as a sign on the hand, and as front- 
lets between the eyes, and to write it on their houses and 
gates. 

16. The general system of Civil Government laid down 
in the institutions of Moses, is essentially different from 
any thing that he could have seen, or heard of, in his time, 
and infinitely more favourable to personal liberty, and 
consequently to justice, truth, and happiness. 

In the time of Moses, all the neighbouring countries, of 
any note, were governed by kings, whose will, as far as 
appears, was the only law. But the government instituted 



INSTITUTIONS OF MOSES. 5U 

by Moses, was a government affixed laws, and those laws 
reduced to writing, so that they could not but have been 
universally known ; and nothing was left to the arbitrary 
will of any man, whatever office he might hold in the 
state. In all this, a noble example was set to the world ; 
and we find, in fact, that civil and personal liberty have 
been regarded in every nation in proportion as the Scrip- 
ture has been regarded. The government of the Hindoos 
is the very reverse of that of Moses, being evidently calcu- 
lated, as Sir William Jones has justly observed, to throw 
all power into the hands of the despot and the priests, 
while the rest of the nation were kept in ignorance and 
slavery. 

The Hebrew government was a Theocracy : God was 
their King, not only as creatures, but as a nation. As, 
however, a deviation, through the unfaithfulness of the 
people, from this divine constitution, was foreseen, provi- 
sion was made for it ; and, among other guards against 
the abuses of power, the King was requested to write, 
with his own hand, a copy of the laws by which he and 
the rest of the nation were to be governed. Their kings 
were thus the lieutenants of Jehovah, nor did any king of 
Judah, even the most addicted to idolatry, make any 
alteration in the laws of the kingdom. The priests received 
no power by the civil governors ; God determined by 
Moses the duties and the privileges of each ; and no classes 
of men were ever more different from each other, than the 
Brahmins among the Hindoos, and the order of priests 
among the Israelites; this all unprejudiced persons, who 
are in the smallest degree attentive to the subject, must 
acknowledge. 

17. If Moses had borrowed his religious institutions 
from Egypt, or any other nation, he would probably have 
adopted some of their Civil Lazas, as those relating to per- 
sons, property, &c. But we find no such resemblance in 
those of any nation, ancient or modern. The privileges 



60 ORIGINALITY OF THE 

of the Sabbatical year, and of the Jubilee, are wholly of a 
civil nature, and they must have been an admirable secu- 
rity for personal liberty, and the property of families. 
No Hebrew could bind himself in a servile state for more 
than seven years, nor could he alienate his landed pro- 
perty for more than fifty. In consequence of this, though 
a family might suffer by the imprudence or extravagance 
of the head of it, the evil had a limit, for all estates at the 
Jubilee reverted to their original proprietors. 

The laws relating to theft, robbery, and personal inju- 
ries, are by no means the same with those of other nations, 
and they are all admirable for their equity. The abomi- 
nable vices of sodomy and bestiality, are punishable with 
death by the law of Moses, but not by those of any ancient 
legislator ; and they are eminently calculated to preserve 
the real dignity, and prevent the degradation of mankind. 

18. In all ancient nations there were trials by various 
Ordeals, in which the accused person was supposed to be 
guilty, unless fire or water did not injure him. This is 
the case among the Hindoos, who hold this mode of evi- 
dence in the highest veneration. In the institutions of 
Moses we find one trial by ordeal, but it is so essentially 
different from any that was in use in other countries, that 
it could never have been borrowed from them. This was 
in the case of a wife suspected of adultery. To satisfy the 
husband in this case, the wife was made to drink a quantity 
of water, in which was put some dust from the ground, 
and the scrapings of a writing, containing a denunciation of 
divine judgments to be instantly inflicted in case they were 
guilty. But besides that recourse was had to this mode of 
trial only in defect of proper evidence, all that can be 
objected to, even by those who do not believe in any divine 
interposition, is, that the guilty person might remain 
unhurt: a striking contrast this to the cruel and unjust 
ordeals of the heathen. 

From this general view of the subject, and the compa- 



INSTITUTIONS OF MOSES. 61 

vison might have been extended to many more particulars, 
it is manifest, that the laws of Moses are truly original ; 
and that their superiority to those of other nations, even 
the most famed for wisdom, especially if we consider the 
high and certain antiquity of these laws, is an evidence of 
their divine origin ; and that Moses truly was, according 
to his own declarations, only the instrument of Jehovah. 
His appeal to the people, thus taught of God, has all the 
boldness of truth, and need never fear detection or contra- 
diction. " Behold ! I have taught you statutes and judg- 
ments, even as the Lord my God commanded me, that 
you should do so in the land whither ye go to possess it. 
Keep, therefore, and do them, for this is your wisdom 
and understanding in the sight of the nations, which shall 
hear all these statutes, and say, Surely this great nation is 
a wise and understanding people. For what nation is 
there so great, who hath God so nigh unto them, as the 
Lord our God is in all things that we call upon him for ? 
And what nation is there so great, that hath statutes and 
judgments so righteous as all this law, which I set before 
you this day P' 1 Deut. iv. 5 — 8.* 



* For the observations in this Dissertation, I am indebted principally to a 
valuable pamphlet, On the Originality of the Mosaic Institutions, printed 
in Northumberland, America, 1803, j^vo.^and Dr. Wait's Course of Ser- 
mons preached before the University of Cambridge. Lond. 1826. 



DISSERTATION IV. 

on 
THE MOSAIC DISTINCTION OF ANIMALS. 



fffTHE Jewish Legislator, in the eleventh chapter of Levi- 
ticus, specifies various Beasts, Birds, Fishes, and Reptiles, 
which he distinguishes by the terms clean and unclean : 
the " clean" are permitted to be eaten, but the " unclean" 
are forbidden. He also lays down certain rules for distin- 
guishing, generally, those that are " clean" from those 
that are " unclean." — According to the position so ably 
defended by Maimonides, these distinctions are not arbi- 
trarily marked, or causelessly enjoined, but originate in 
sacred wisdom, and are designed to promote the welfare of 
the nation on whom they are enforced.— It may therefore 
increase our conviction of the wise and salutary tendency of 
the Mosaic economy, to glance at the nature of the tests 
established for ascertaining the legal purity or impurity 
of animals in general ; and to enquire into the reasons for 
adopting the distinction. 

I.— THE SYSTEM OF DISCRIMINATION. 

1. With respect to Quadrupeds, Moses reduces the 
rules of distinction to the natural and simple ones of the 
form of the foot and the chewing of the cud. All beasts 
that have their feet completely cloven, above as well as 
below, and at the same time ruminate or chew the cud, are 



MOSAIC DISTINCTION OF ANIMALS. 63 

" clean : " those which have neither, or want one of these 
distinguishing marks, are " unclean." — But as there are 
some cases in which doubt may arise whether they do fully 
divide the hoof, or ruminate, as in the case of the hare, 
&c, the legislator, in order to prevent difficulties, authori- 
tatively decides the point, by distinctly specifying which of 
such animals shall be eaten, and which shall be forbidden. — 
On this svstem of distinction, Michaelis, in his Commenta- 
ries on the Laws of Moses, observes, " That, in so early an 
age of the world, we should find a systematic division of 
quadrupeds so excellent as never yet, after all the improve- 
ments in natural history, to have become obsolete, but, on 
on the contrary, to be still considered as useful by the 
greatest masters of the science, cannot but be looked upon 
as truly wonderful.'"* 

2. The systematic distinction of Fishes, is equally clear 
and simple as the former. All that have scales and fins 
are " clean' 1 '' or lawful to be eaten, all others " unclean 11 or 
forbidden. 

3. With regard to Birds, no particular characters are 
given for dividing them into classes, as " clean, " or 
"unclean; 11 but judging from those which are specified, so 
far as the obsolete nature of the Hebrew names will permit, 
it will be found, that those which live on grain are not 
prohibited ; and as these are the domesticated kinds, we 
might almost express it in other words — that birds of prey, 
generally, are rejected, that is, those with crooked beaks 
and strong talons ; whether they prey on lesser fowls or 
animals, or on fish : while those which eat vegetables are 
admitted as lawful. So that the same principle is main- 
tained to a certain degree, among birds as among beasts. 1 '-}- 

* Michaelis's Commentaries, translated by Dr. A. Smith, vol. iii. Art. 
204, p. 233. London, 1814, 8vo. 

t Scripture Illustrated, by C. Taylor: cited by Harris, in Natural 
History of the Bible, Dissert, iii. London, 1824, 8co, 
E 2 



64 MOSAIC DISTINCTION 

4. With respect to Serpents, Worms, Insects, &c. 3 it is 
declared, that " all creatures that creep, going upon all 
four ; and whatsoever goeth upon the belly ; or whatso- 
ever hath more feet than four among creeping things, are 
an abomination." An exception, however, is made with 
respect to those winged insects, which besides four walking 
legs, have also two longer springing legs, (pedes saltatorii,) 
and under the denomination of locusts are accounted clean. 

5. Besides the general distinctions already noticed, 
another is made relating to whatsoever goeth upon his 
paws among all manner of beasts that go upon all four ; 
being therefore pronounced unclean. The literal translation 
of the Hebrew would be palms or hands, and therefore 
probably refers to those animals whose feet resemble the 
hands or feet of the human being, such as apes, monkeys, 
fee, and all creatures of that genus ; together with bears, 
lions, cats, dogs, and frogs, &c. &c* 

II— REASONS OF THE DISTINCTION OF 

" CLEAN" AND "UNCLEAN." 

Various reasons have been adduced for the legal dis- 
tinction betwixt clean and unclean animals, by those learned 
men, who have made this part of the Jewish polity their 
peculiar study ; and although it must be acknowledged that 
some of them have been too fanciful in some of the positions 
which they have advocated, and that others have ramified 
their enquiries into unnecessary minuteness, and have even 
weakened their arguments by attempting to prove too 
much, still it will be found by the candid investigator that 
there are some great and leading reasons for these dietetic 
distinctions, in which all the best writers are agreed, and 
which we may therefore safely consider as sound and 

* See .Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary : in loc— Lewis's Antiquities of the 
Iieb. Republic, vol. iii. c. 19. p. 211. 



OF ANIMALS {,5 

Scriptural, as well as rational. The sum of these is, that 
these distinctions were intended to prevent idolatry, — to 
promote the health and comfort of the people, — and to hiflu- 
ence the moral character of the nation. 

1 TO PREVENT IDOLATRY. 

The Israelites having sojourned in Egypt amongst gross 
idolaters for several ages, had become so deeply imbued with 
the idolatrous principles of the people, and so habituated 
to their practices, that it required the most solemn and 
reiterated injunctions and threatenings to check their strong 
propensity to adopt the idolatrous manners of the Egyp- 
tians and other surrounding nations. The distinction of 
animals into " clean" and " unclean, 1 ' aided the accom- 
plishment of this great and desirable object, since it took 
away the very foundation of all commerce with other 
people : For those who can neither eat nor drink together, 
are never likely to contract an intimacy ; nor was it pro- 
bable that the Israelites would look upon those animals as 
deities worthy of being worshipped, upon which they fed 
daily. But not only were they permitted to eat such as 
were usually adored by the Egyptians, they were also 
taught to look upon others with religious detestation, 
which were accounted sacred and held in the highest vene- 
ration by them. " Most of the creatures," says the 
erudite Lewis, " which are pronounced unclean, were such 
as were in high esteem and sacred among the heathen ; as 
a swine was to Venus, the owl to Minerva, the hawk to 
Apollo, the eagle to Jupiter, and even the dog to Hecate ; 
which gave occasion to Origen justly to fall into admiration 
of the wisdom of Moses, who so perfectly understood the 
nature of all animals, and what relation they had to 
demons, that he declared all those to be unclean which 
were esteemed by the Egyptians and other nations to be 
the instruments of divination, and those to be clean which 



66 MOSAIC BISTINCTIOX 

were not so : (Origen contra Celsum, lib. iv.) and if in the 
time of Moses such creatures were not sacred to demons, 
it is a greater wonder that he should mark out those as 
impure, which proved to be so sacred to after ages ; as a 
great number of birds mentioned in Porphyry, who says, 
The gods used them as heralds to declare their mind to 
men, and several other creatures mentioned by other 
authors, as peculiarly appropriated to other deities.'"* It 
is well known, that the lion, wolf, dog, cat, ape, and 
even frogs, otters, rats, beetles, and flies, as well as ser- 
pents and fishes, were held in idolatrous veneration by the 
Egyptians and other nations,f and for which they were 
thus satyrized by Juvenal, a Pagan Roman himself: 

How Egypt, mad with superstition grown, 

Makes gods of monsters, is but too well known : 

One sect, devotion to Nile's serpent pays ; 

Others to Ibis that on serpent preys. 

Where, Thebes, thy hundred gates lie unrepair'd, 

And where maim'd Memno's magic harp is heard ; 

Where these are mould'ring, lest the sots combine 

With pious care a monkey to enshrine ! 

Fish-gods youll meet with fins and scales o'ergrown ; 

Diana's dogs ador'd in ev'ry town, 

Her dogs have temples, but the goddess none : 

'Tis mortal sin an onion to devour, 

Each clove of garlic is a sacred pow'r. 

Religious nations sure and blest abodes, 

Where ev'ry orchard is o'er-run with gods. 

To kill is murder, sacrilege to eat 

A kid or lamb. J 

The restrictions, therefore, which were made with 
respect to diet, especially by the division of animals into 

* Lewis's Antiq. of Heb. Republic, vol. iii. b. 6, p. 203. See also Bruce's 
Travels, vol. v. Appendix pp. 163—167, 4fo. 

-j- Marshami Chronicon, sec. ix. p. 162, Lipsiss, 1676, 4(o. — Bryant's 
Observations upon the Plagues inflicted upon the Egyptians, passim. — Beloe's 
Herodotus, Euterpe, vol. i. p. 300. 

± Dryden's Juvenal, Sat, xv. 



OF ANIMALS. 67 

" clean" and " unclean/'' were eminently calculated to 
prevent intimacies with the Egyptians and Canaanites and 
other idolaters, and to prevent their " table from becoming 
a snare ; and that which should have been for their welfare 
becoming a trap." (Psalm lxix. 22.) It has, consequently, 
been well remarked, that " this statute, above all others, 
established not only a political and sacred, but a physical 
separation of the Jews from all other people. It made it 
next to impossible for the one to mix with the other, either in 
meals or in marriage, or in any familiar connexion. Their 
opposite customs in the article of diet not only precluded 
a friendly and comfortable intimacy, but generated mutual 
contempt and abhorrence. The Jews religiously abhorred 
the society, manners, and institutions of the Gentiles, 
because they viewed their own abstinence from forbidden 
meats, as a token of peculiar sanctity, and of course 
regarded other nations, who wanted this sanctity, as vile 
and detestable. They considered themselves as secluded 
by God himself from the profane world, by a peculiar 
worship, government, law, dress, mode of living, and 
country. Though this separation from other people, on 
which the law respecting food was founded, created in 
the Jews a criminal pride, and hatred of the Gentiles ; yet 
it forcibly operated as a preservative from heathen idolatry, 
by precluding all familiarity with idolatrous nations."* 
" Ye shall therefore," said Jehovah, " put difference 
between clean beasts and unclean, and between unclean 
fowls and clean ; and ye shall not make your souls abomi- 
nable by beast or by fowl, or by any manner of living 
thing that creepeth on the ground, which I have separated 
from you as unclean : and ye shall be holy unto me ; for I 
the Lord am holy, and have severed you from other 
people that ye should be mine." Levit. xx. 25, 26. 

* Tappan's Lectures, quoted in Harris's Natural Hist, of the Bible. Dis- 
sertation iii. p. 27. 



MOSAIC DISTINCTION 



52 TO PROMOTE HEALTH AND COMFORT. 

In the distinction of animals into " clean" and " unclean, 1 * 
particular reference appears to have been made to their 
suitableness for food, those being accounted " clean 1 
which afforded a considerable proportion of wholesome nu- 
triment, and those being condemned as " unclean," which 
were of a gross and unwholesome nature. " While God 
keeps the eternal interests of man steadily in view," observes 
a learned Commentator,* " he does not forget his earthly 
comfort ; he is at once solicitous both for the health of his 
body and his soul. He has not forbidden certain aliments 
because he is a Sovereign, but because he knew they would 
be injurious to the health and morals of his people. Solid- 
Jvoted animals, such as the horse, and many-toed animals, 
such as the cat, &c. are here prohibited. Beasts which have 
bifid or cloven-hoofs, such as the ox, are considered as proper 
for food, and therefore commanded. The former are 
unclean, i. e. unwholsome, affording a gross nutriment, 
often the parent of scorbutic and scrophulous disorders; 
the latter clean, i. e. affording a copious and wholesome 
nutriment, and not laying the foundation of any disease. 
Ruminating animals, i. e. those which chexv the cud, con- 
coct their food better than the others, which swallow it with 
little mastication, and therefore the. flesh contains more of 
the nutritious juices, and is more easy of digestion, and 
consequently of assimilation to the solids and fluids of the 
human body : on this account they are termed clean, i. e. 
peculiarly wholesome and fit for food. The animals which 
do not ruminate do not concoct their food so well, and hence 
they abound with gross animal juices, which yield a com_ 
paratively unwholesome nutriment to the human system. 
Even the animals which have bifid hoofs, but do not chew 

* Dr. Adam Clarke's Comment, on Levit. xi. 



OF ANrMALS. 69 

the cud, such as the swine ; and those who chew the cud, 
but are not bifid, such as the hare and rabbit, are by Him, 
who knows all things, forbidden, because He knew them to 
be, comparatively, innutritive. — On the same ground he 
forbad all Jish that have not both fins and scales, such as 
the conger, eel, &c. which abound in gross juices, and fat, 
which very few stomachs are able to digest. 1 ' 

" One of the most distinguishing traits in the character of 
Moses, as a legislator,'" says a celebrated French writer, 
" and one in which he was the most imitated by those who 
in after ages gave laws to the Eastern world, was his con- 
stant attention to the health of the people. He forbad the 
use of pork, of the hare, &c. of fish without scales whose 
flesh is gross and oily, and all kinds of heavy meat, as the 
fat of the bullock, of the kid, and of the lamb ; an inhibi- 
tion supremely wise in a country, where the excessive heat 
relaxing the fibres of the stomach rendered digestion pecu- 
liarly slow and difficult.'"* 

" The flesh of the eel and some other fish? says Larcher, 
" thickened the blood, and by checking the perspiration 
excited all those maladies connected with the leprosy ,•" and 
even goes so far as to suppose that this was the reason why 
the Egyptian priests proscribed certain kinds of fish and 
caused them to be accounted sacred, the better to preserve 
the people from eating so unwholesome a kind of food :-f- 
— and Plutarch gives a similar reason for swine being held 
in general abhorrence by them, notwithstanding they sacri- 
ficed them at the full moon, to the Moon and to Bacchus, 
" The milk of the sow? he remarks, " occasioned leprosies, 
which was the reason why the Egyptians entertained so 
great an aversion for this animal.' 1 ! — The innutritive 

* M. de Pastoret. Moyse, considere' comme Legislateur et comme Moraliste. 
Chap. vii. p. 528. Paris, 1788, Qvo. 

+ Beloe's Herodotus, ut sup. 
t Ibid. vol. i. pp. 231, 272. 



70 MOSAIC DISTINCTION 

quality of the animals forbidden is also learnedly defended 
by Michaelis in his Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, 
Vol. iii. article 503, pp. 230, 231 ; — and by Wagenseil in 
his Tela Ignea Satana, in Carminis R. Lipmanni Con- 
Jiitat. pp. 555, 556, who observes that the Jews not only 
considered the eating of pork as inducing the leprosy, but 
regarded the very name of swine as ominous, and avoided 
naming it if possible; and that the Talmudists say, "If 
a child sucks the milk of a sow it will become leprous." — 
From these and similar views of the dietetic character of 
theMosaic distinction of animals into "clean" and " unclean," 
Lowman judiciously observes, that "the food allowed the 
Hebrew nation, as an holy people, were the gentler sort of 
creatures, and of most common use, such as were bred about 
their houses and in their fields, and were, in a sort, domes- 
tic : they were creatures of the cleanest feeding, and which 
gave the most wholesome nourishment, and were of a better 
taste, and might be had in greater plenty and perfection by 
a proper care of their breeding and feeding : they seem, 
therefore, naturally fit to be chosen as a better kind of food : 
and if it became the Hebrews as an holy nation, to have 
any ritual distinction of foods, could any thing have been 
devised more proper than to prefer such foods as were the 
best foods, most easy to be had, and in the greatest perfec- 
tion, most useful and most profitable to the industrious 
husbandman ? Was not this much better than to give 
encouragement to hunting of wild beasts and following 
birds of prey, no ways so fit for food nor so easy to be had, 
and hardly consistent with the innocency and mildness of a 
pastoral and domestic life? Such a difference as the ritual 
makes between foods, was wisely appointed to encourage 
the improvement of their ground, to contribute to the 
health of their bodies, and to the ease of their employment 
in life, no inconsiderable part of the blessings of the 
promised land."* 

* Lowman, Rational of the Ritual of the Hebrew Worship, p. 220. 



OF ANIMALS. 71 

& TO INFLUENCE MORAL CHARACTER. 

This object was promoted in the Mosaic distinction of 
animals, — by impressing the minds of the Israelites with 
the conviction that as they were chosen by God to be " a 
peculiar people," it was their duty to endeavour to become 
"a holy nation;" — by prohibiting the eating of those 
animals, which by their gross and feculent nature as food 
would induce or increase any vicious propensities; — by 
symbolizing the dispositions and conduct to be encouraged 
and cultivated, or to be abhorred and avoided; — and by 
gradually weaning the mind from the superstitious influence 
produced by the manners of the Egyptians, and restoring 
it to soundness and spirituality. 

The following extracts will show, that these reasons have 
received the sanction both of Jewish and Christian writers 
of different countries and in different ages. — Levi Barcelona, 
a Rabbinical writer, says, " As the body is the seat of the 
soul, God would have it a fit instrument for its companion, 
and therefore removes from his people all those obstructions 
which may hinder the soul in its operations ; for which rea- 
son all such meats are forbidden as breed ill blood ; among 
which if there may be some whose hurtfulness is neither 
manifest to us nor to physicians, wonder not at it, for the 
faithful Physician who forbids them is wiser than any 
of us."* — Aristeas, in his History of the Septuagint, 
states, that when sent by Ptolemy Philadelphus, to procure 
translators of the Sacred Books of the Jews into Greek, 
for the royal library, Eleazer, the high-priest, in answer to 
his enquiries respecting the Law of Moses, gave the follow- 
ing explanation of the precepts concerning " clean" and 
" unclean" animals : "Moses," he observes, " hath very well 

* Precept lxxix. quoted in Harris's Nat. Hist, of the Bible. Dissert, iii, 
p. 29. 



72 MOSAIC DISTINCTION 

and wisely ordered all things to the honesty of living, 
having regard to purity and cleanliness, and to the correc- 
tion and amendment of manners : and as for birds and 
flying fowls, he hath permitted us to eat ordinarily of such 
as are tame, and are different from others in neatness and 
cleanliness, and that live upon grains and seeds; — and 
such as he hath forbidden us to eat, are wild and ravenous, 
living upon flesh and carrion, of proud natures, inclined 
to rapine and prey, and such as by force set upon others, 
and seek not their living, but to the damage, hurt, and 
injury of the other poultry who are gentle and tame. 
Our law-maker, therefore, noting this by Avay of similitude^ 
and by a borrowed way of translation, taken from the 
nature of such fowls, hath pronounced them unclean and 
infectious, as being willing to reduce and bring all things 
to the consideration of purity and cleanliness of the soul, 
to the end that every one being admonished by ordinary 
and domestic examples may understand how it behoveth us 
to use equity and justice ; and that it is not granted to 
man, be he never so strong, powerful, proud, bold, and 
audacious soever, to ravish by force any thing from another, 
nor to do any injury to any person; but that it is con- 
venient he should order the course of his life in imitation 
of the fowl I have spoken of, who live by grain, leading a 
tame and tractable life ; and that it is not lawful to vex and 
trouble any person of our own kind, nor ravish his goods 
by force, as do those beasts he hath prohibited us to eat ; 
and not to use violence in any case, which is figured by 
the nature of beasts, not wholly void of sense." And 
again, " Where he hath licensed us eating the flesh of 
four-footed beasts, who have two, and the hoofs cloven, 
the import is, that we ought to direct our operations to 
justice and bounty : by this cloven hoof figuring to us the 
distribution of rewards and punishments. He hath added 
further, that they should be such as chczv the cud, by 
which he manifestly admonisheth us to have this rumina- 



OF ANIMALS. 73 

tion in memory, and in the course of our life ; for what 
signifieth the chewing of the cud, but that we ought still to 
have in our minds a continual revolving of our lives and 
actions, and so, by a frequent meditation, the duties to 
which we are obliged, and what we owe to all ?"* 

The early Christian Fathers abound with similar repre- 
sentations of the tropological or figurative nature of these 
distinctions. St. Barnabas, in his Catholic Epistle, thus 
explains the design of these Mosaic precepts. " Why 
did Moses say, s Ye shall not eat of the swine, neither 
the eagle, nor the hawk, nor the crow; nor any fish that 
has not a scale upon him ?' I answer, that under this out- 
side figure, he comprehended three spiritual doctrines that 
were to be gathered from thence. Therefore David took 
aright the knowledge of his threefold command, saying in 
like manner, (Psalm i,) ' Blessed is the man that hath not 
walked in the counsel of the ungodly ;' — as the fishes, 
before mentioned, in the bottom of the deep in darkness : 
* Nor stood in the way of sinners ;' — as they who seem to 
fear the Lord, but yet sin, as the sow : — * And hath not sat 
in the seat of the scorners fas those birds who sit and watch 
that they may devour."-}* This interpretation of the first 
Psalm is copied by Clemens Alexandrinus, in his Stromata, 
lib. ii. with the addition of many similar expositions of the 
Mosaic precepts ; % and Eusebius, in his Prwparatio Evan- 
gelica, lib. viii, has transcribed from Aristeas, the interpre- 
tations of the high-priest Eleazer.§ Origen observes, 
" There is scarcely any thing more extraordinary in the 

a Aristeus's History of the Septuagint : Englished from the Greek, by 
Rev. Dr. John Done, pp. 76—84. Lond. 1685, 24mo. 

•f Wake's Apostolical Epistles : — Epist. of St. Barnabas, pp. 286, 289. 
Lond. 1693, 8to. 

% Clement. Alexand. Stromat. Lib. ii. p. 389. Lib. vii. p. 718. Co- 
lonue, 1688, fol. 

§ Eusebii Praspar. Evan. Lib. viii. 



74} MOSAIC DISTINCTION 

writings of Moses, than his distinctions in the nature of 
animals ; whether the relations subsisting between the 
different species and demons be considered as revealed to 
him by God, or discovered by his own observations. For 
in these distinctions, he places, in the class of unclean, all 
those which are made use of in their divinations by the 
Egyptians and other nations ; and ranks almost all others 
among those that are considered clean. Thus, the wolf, 
the fox, the serpent, the eagle, the hawk, and other simi- 
lar ones, are, according to Moses, unclean ; and com- 
monly, both in the Law, and in the Prophets, these animals 
are designed to represent whatever is most wicked in the 
world." 1 ''* Justin Martyr also says, " He (God) has 
likewise commanded you to abstain from certain meats, 
that, even whilst you eat and drink, you might have God 
before your eyes. r '-f- Tertulltan likewise has the following 
remarks, with which we shall conclude this article : " If 
the Law takes away the use of some sorts of meat, and 
pronounces creatures unclean, that were formerly held quite 
otherwise, let us consider that the design was to inure them 
to temperance, and look upon it as a restraint laid upon 
gluttons, who hankered after the cucumbers and melons of 
Egypt, whilst they were eating the food of angels. Let 
us consider it too as a remedy at the same time against 
excess and impurity, the usual attendants on gluttony. 
It was partly likewise, to extinguish the love of money 
by taking away the pretence of its being necessary for 
the providing of sustenance. It was, finally, to enable 
men to fast with less inconvenience upon religious occa- 
sions, by using them to a moderate and plain diet.^J 

* Origen contra Celsum. Lib. iv. p. 124. 

•j- Justin Martyr's Dialogue with Trypho, the Jew, translated by H. 
Brown, vol. i. sec. 20, p. 98. Oxford, 1 755, 8vo. 

% Tertullian adv. Marc. lib. ii. c. 18. in fine, quoted in Harris's Nat. 
Hist of the Bible, Dissert, iii. 



OF ANIMALS. 75 

The reader who wishes to pursue this subject more at 
large, may consult with advantage Spencer De Legibus 
Hebraorwm: Michaelis's Commentaries on the Lazvs of 
Moses : Young's Historical Dissertation on Idolatrous 
Corruptions in Religion: Harris's Natural History of' 
the Bible, Dissertation Hi, ; and the authors to whom they 
respectively refer. 



DISSERTATION V. 

ON 

THE PROHIBITION OF BLOOD. 



nnHE Reasons for the Prohibition of eating Blood were 
-"- various, and may be distinguished as Moral, Physical, 
and Typical. 

L— MORAL. 

1. One very principal reason for prohibiting blood to be 
eaten was, beyond all doubt, to prevent idolatrous practices. 
For blood was regarded as the food of demons, not only 
by the nations immediately bordering upon the dwellings 
of the Israelites, but by other idolaters in different parts of 
the world. Maimonides has stated at large the super- 
stitions of the Zabii, in offering blood as a sacrifice to the 
infernal objects of their worship.* R. Moses Bar Nachman 
(on Deut. xii. 23,) says, " They gathered together blood 
for the devils, their idol gods, and then came themselves 
and ate of that blood with them as being the devil's guests, 
and invited to eat at the table of devils, and so were joined 
in federal society with them ; and by this kind of com- 
munion with devils, they were able to prophesy and fore- 
tel things to come.'"-}- Similar practices obtained also 
among the Romans, since Horace thus satyrizes the super- 
stitious rites of his countrymen : 

* See More Nevochim, Lib. iii. 
t Young on Idolatrous Corruptions in Religion, vol. i. p. 235. 



OF BLOOD. 77 

Canidia with dishevell'd hair, 

(Black was her robe, her feet were bare,) 

With Sagana, infernal dame ! 

Her elder sister, hither came. 

With yellings dire, they fill'd the place, 

-And hideous pale was either's face. 

Soon with their nails they scrap'd the ground, 

And fill'd a magic trench profound, 

With a black lamb's thick streaming gore, 

Whose members with their teeth they tore, 

That they may charm the sprights to tell 

Some curious anecdotes from hell. 

Francis's Horace. — Sat. 7- Book i. 

The sacred books of the Hindoos exhibit traces of the 
same kind of worship formerly prevailing amongst them. 
In the Asiatic Researches, vol. v., is a translation of the 
" Rudhiradhyaya or Sanguinary Chapter 1 ' of the Calica 
Puran, by W. C. Blaquiere, Esq., from which the following 
are extracts : 

"Birds, tortoises, alligators, fish, nine species of wild 
animals, buffaloes, bulls, he-goats, ichneumons, wild boars, 
rhinoceroses, antelopes, guanas, rein-deer, lions, tygers, 
men, and blood drawn from the offerer's own body, are 
looked upon as proper oblations to the Goddess Chandica, 
the Bhairdvas, &c. — The pleasure which the Goddess 
receives from an oblation of the blood of fish and tortoise, is 
of one month's duration, and three from that of a crocodile. 
By the blood of the nine species of wild animals, the God- 
dess is satisfied nine months, and for that space of time 
continues propitious to the offerer's welfare. — That of the 
lion, rein-deer, and the human species, produces pleasure 
which lasts a thousand years. — The vessel in which the 
blood is to be presented, is to be according to the circum- 
stances of the offerer, of gold, silver, copper, brass, or 
leaves sewed together, or of earth, or of tutenague, or of 
any of the species of wood used in sacrifices. Let it not be 
presented in an iron vessel, nor in one made of the hide of 
F 



78 THE PROHIBITION 

an animal, or the bark of a tree ; nor in a pewter, tin, or 
leaden vessel. — Let it not be presented by pouring it on the 
ground, or into any of the vessels used at other times for 
offering food to the deity. — Human blood must always be 
presented in a metallic or earthen vessel ; and never on any 
account in a vessel made of leaves, or similar substances." 

2. Another reason why blood was to "be poured upon 
the earth as water,'''' and not to be " eaten," appears to 
have been, that by this means the Israelites might be 
deeply and constantly impressed with the important truth, 
that God is the sole Author and Disposer of Life ; and 
thereby maintaining a constant sense of dependance upon 
Him, and of gratitude to Him for his providential mercies. 
"God," says the learned Calmet, "reserved to himself the 
blood of all sacrifices as absolute Master of Life and Death."" 
—Blood, being regarded as the organ of life, was therefore 
sacred to Him from whom life was derived : for " the blood 
is the life, and thou mayest not eat the life with the flesh." 
Deut. xii. 23, 24 ; Lev. xvii. 10—14. 

The doctrine of the Vitality of the Blood, thus suggested 
by the Laws of Moses, does not appear to have been 
avowed by medical writers before A. D. 1628, the time of the 
celebrated Harvey, the discoverer or reviver of the doctrine 
of the circulation of the blood, who, in his writings main- 
tained the opinion, but was never much followed till Mr. 
Hunter, professor of Anatomy in London, defended the 
hypothesis with much acuteness and strength of argument, 
in his Treatise on the Blood, Inflammation, &c, London, 
1794, 4ito. — The arguments of Hunter were vigorously 
attacked by Professor Blumenbach of Gottingen, who 
fancied he had gained a complete victory over the defenders 
of the Vitality of the Blood. But his translator, Dr. 
Elliotson, in the Notes he has added to the Professor's 
Institutions of Physiology, (Sect. vi. pp. 43, 44, London, 
1817, 2nd edition, 8vo.,) thus sums up what he regards 
as the true state of the question : — " The great asserter of 



OF BLOOD. 79 

the life of the Blood is Mr. Hunter, and the mere adoption 
of the opinion by Mr. Hunter would entitle it to the utmost 
respect from me, who find the most ardent and independent 
love of truth, and the genuine stamp of profound genius, in 
every passage of his works. The freedom of the blood 
from putrefaction while circulating, and its inability to 
coagulate after death from arsenic, electricity and light- 
ning, may, like its inability to coagulate when mixed witli 
bile, be simply chemical phenomena, independent of 
vitality. But its inability to coagulate after death from 
anger or a blow on the stomach, which deprive the muscles 
likewise of their usual stiffness ; its accelerated coagulation 
by means of heat ; perhaps its diminished coagulation by 
the admixture of opium ; its earlier putridity when 
drawn from old than from young persons ; its freezing- 
like eggs, frogs, snails, &c. more readily when once pre- 
viously frozen ; (which may be supposed to have exhausted 
its powers;) its directly becoming the solid organized sub- 
stance of our bodies, while the food requires various 
intermediate changes before it is capable of affording 
nutriment; the organization (probably to a great degree 
independent of the neighbouring parts) of lymph effused 
from the blood ; and finally the formation of the genital 
fluids, one at least of which must be allowed by all to be 
alive, from the blood itself, do appear to me very strong 
arguments in favour of the life of the blood.'"* 

But whatever may be thought of the physiological dis- 
pute, the obligation remains inviolate ; for if we suppose 
that when Moses says, (Levit. xvii. 11, 14,) " The life of 
the flesh is in the blood t 11 — " it is the life of all flesh ;" he 
only meant that " when the blood is withdrawn, life ceases, 

* Blumenbach's Institutions of Physiology, translated by Dr. Elliotson. 
Sect. 6, Notes, pp. 43, 44. — Dr. Hunter's arguments may be found in 
an abridged form in Dr. A, Clarke's Commentary on Levit. xvii. 11, and 
Encyc. Perth, art. Blood. 

F 2 



80 THE PROHIBITION 

— that it is necessary to the life of animals," it still remains 
a duty to pour the blood upon the earth as the significant 
symbol of absolute dependance upon God for life and every 
blessing; blood being "the most important fluid of the 
animal machine, — a fluid, which excites the heart to con- 
traction, which distributes oxygen to every part, and con- 
veys the carbon to the excretory vessels, giving rise, by this 
change, to animal heat : which originally supplies the 
materials of the solids, and afterwards their nourishment : 
from which all the jluids with the exception of the crude 
[or chyle] are secreted and derived.' 1 * 

3. A third reason which may be adduced for the prohibi- 
tion of blood, is, that it served to check cruel and savage 
customs, and prevent the unrestrained indulgence of barba- 
rous and ferocious inclinations. — The Jewish Rabbins assert 
that the prohibitory injunctions relating to blood were 
originally designed to suppress a practice, which, they say, 
obtained even in the time of Noah, of eating raw flesh, and 
especially of eating the flesh of living animals cut or torn 
from them and devoured whilst reeking with the warm 
blood.-f- — Plutarch, in his Discourse of eating Jlesh, informs 
us, that it was customary in his time, to run red-hot spits 
through the bodies of live swine ; and to stamp upon 
the udders of sows ready to farrow, to make their flesh 
more delicious ; and Herodotus (1. iv.) assures us, that the 
Scythians, from drinking the blood of their cattle, proceeded 
to drink the blood of their enemies. It is even affirmed 
that both in Ireland, and the Islands and Highlands of 
Scotland, the drinking of the blood of live cattle is still 
continued or has but recently been relinquished. Dr. 
Patrick Delaney says, " There is a practice sufficiently 
known to obtain among the poor of the kingdom of Ireland. 
It is customary with them to bleed their cattle for food in 

* Ibid. Sect. 2. p. 8. 

•j- See the following Translation. 



OF BLOOD. 81 

years of scarcity :"* and the Analytical Reviewers observe, 
" It will scarcely appear credible at a future time, that at 
this day, towards the close of the eighteenth century, in 
the Islands, and some parts of the Highlands, [of Scot- 
land,] the natives every spring or summer attack the 
bullocks with lances, that they may eat their blood, but 
prepared by fire.*""!- The celebrated traveller, Bruce, 
relates with minuteness the scene which he witnessed near 
Axum, the ancient capital of Abyssinia, when the Abys- 
sinian travellers whom he overtook, seized the cow they 
were driving, threw it down, and cutting steaks from it, 
ate them raw, and then drove on the poor sufferer before 
them.;]: — Sir John Carr states, that " the natives of the 
sandy desart [between Memel and Koningsberg] eat live 
eels dipped in salt, which they devour as they writhe with 
anguish round their hands :"§ Major Denham also say, 
that " an old hadgi, named El Raschid, a native of 
Medina, 1 ' who at different periods of his life " had been at 
Waday and at Sennaar, described to him a people, east of 
Waday, whose greatest luxury was feeding on raw meats 
cut from the animal while warm and full of blood. ,, || And 
it is a well-known fact, that the savage natives of New 
Zealand continue to quaff the blood of their enemies when 

* The Doctrine of Abstinence from Blood defended, p. 124, note. London 
1734 — See also Revelation examined with Candour, vol. ii. p. 20. London 
1732, 8vo. 

■f Analytical Review, vol. xxviii. July 1798. — Retrospect of the Active 
World, p. 105. 

$ Bruce's Travels, vol. iii. pp. 332 — 334. Qvo. See also some learned 
remarks by him on the present subject, vol. iv. pp. 477 — 481, in which be 
designates Maimonides as " one of the most learned and sensible men that 
ever wrote upon the Scriptures :" and an able defence of the statement of our 
author in Murray's Life of Bruce, p. 74, note. 

§ Carr's Northern Summer or Travels round the Baltic in the year 1804, 
p. 436, London, 1805. 

|| Denham and Clapperton's Travels and Discoveries in Northern and 
Central Africa, vol. ii, p. 36, note. London, second edition, 1826, 8vo. 



82 THE PEOHIBITION 

taken in battle. — To prevent such cruel and revolting 
practices, the Divine Being enjoined, that animals destined 
for food should be killed with the greatest possible 
despatch, their blood be poured on the ground, and 
the eating of blood religiously avoided ; and still more 
deservedly prohibits such sanguinary food, from its bane- 
ful influence upon the dispositions of those whose vitiated 
appetites or brutal superstitions led them to indulge 
in gross and bloody repasts. For, as has been remarked, 
"all animals that feed upon blood, are observed to 
be much more furious than others;'"* — and Byron 
( Voyage, p. 77.) tells us, that the men by eating what 
they found raw, became little better than cannibals.-)* — 
" Drinking of blood," says Michaelis, " is certainly not a 
becoming ceremony in religious worship. It is not a very 
refined custom, and if often repeated, it might probably 
habituate a people to cruelty, and make them unfeeling with 
regard to blood ; and certainly religion should not give, 
nor even have the appearance of giving, any such direction 
to the manners of a nation. 11 ^ — We therefore add, in the 
words of Dr. Delaney,§ — " If God had not foreseen these 
cruelties, corruptions, and inconveniencies, should we justly 
deem him infinitely wise ? And if foreseeing them, he had 
not yet prohibited them in their cause, (which was at once 
the wisest and most eifectual prohibition,) could we justly 
deem Him infinitely good and gracious to his creatures ? 
When therefore we find Him, infinitely wise in foreseeing, 
and infinitely good in forbidding, such abominable practices, 
do we hesitate to conclude such prohibitions to be the 
effects of infinite wisdom and goodness ; or consistent with 

* Delaney's Revelation examined with Candour, vol. ii. p. 21. 
f Fergus's Short Account of the Laws and Institutions of Moses, p. 90, 
note. Dunfermline, 1810, Gvo — See also Marshami Chronicon, sec. ix, p. 105. 
Lipsias, 1670, ito. 

% Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of Moses ; vol. iii, p. 252= 
§ Revelation examined with Candour ; vol. ii, p. 27. 



OF BLOOD. OO 

any degree of wisdom and goodness in ourselves, to despise 
such commands, or to live in open avowed contempt of 
them r 

II.— PHYSICAL. 

Besides the Moral reasons already adduced for the pro- 
hibition of Blood, there are also others of a Physical nature 
relating to the health of the community, deserving of atten- 
tion. For, 

1. The Blood being highly alkalescent, especially in hot 
climates, is subject to speedy putrefaction ; and consequently 
that flesh will be most wholesome and best answer the 
purposes of life and health, from which the blood has been 
drained; and will preserve its suitableness for food the 
longest. 

2. Blood affords a very gross nutriment, and is very 
difficult of digestion ; and in some cases it is actually 
dangerous to drink it ; for if taken warm, and in large 
quantities, it may prove fatal, particularly bull's blood, 
which was given, with this view, to criminals, by the Greeks, 
4i its extreme viscidity rendering it totally indigestible by 
the powers of the human stomach." — Valerius Maximus 
(lib. v, c. 6,) ascribes the death of Themistocles to his 
having purposely drunk a bowl of ox-blood, during a 
sacrifice, in order to avoid subjecting his country, Greece, 
to the king of Persia. It is true, the blood of animals does 
not always produce similar effects, but this may be owing 
rather to the smallness of the quantity taken, than to its not 
being injurious in its nature; or its malignity may be 
partially counteracted by the other dietetic substances 
with which it may be eaten.* 

3. Those nations which feed largely upon flesh, are 
observed to be remarkably subject to scorbutic diseases ; 

* Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary on Levit. xvii. 11 Michaelis's Commen- 
taries on the Laws of Moses, vol. iii, article 206, p. 252 Revelation examined 

with Candour, vol, ii, p. 23.— Encyc, Perth., article Blood. 



84 THE PROHIBITION 

and if physicians be right in ascribing such tendency to 
animal food in general when freely eaten, especially in the 
hotter climates, it must be acknowledged that the grosser 
and more indigestible juices of such food must have the 
greatest tendency to produce such injurious consequences, 
and blood as the grossest of all animal juices be the most 
inimical to health and soundness.* To abstain, therefore, 
from all meat, from which the blood has not been drained, 
from whatever cause the blood has been retained in the 
animal, whether purposely by strangling or otherwise, must 
be much more conducive to health, than by yielding to a 
luxurious and vitiated taste and adopting a contrary 
practice. 

3.— TYPICAL. 

" The law was a shadow of good things to come," and 
" though not the very image of those things, 1 ' was neverthe- 
less designed to symbolize the great events of the Gospel dis- 
pensation. Among the various types and figures of the 
Law was that of Blood, commanded to be poured out as 
" an atonement." — " The life of the flesh is in the blood, 
and, I have given it to you upon the altar to make an atone- 
ment for your souls: for it is the blood thatmaketh an atone- 
ment for the soul." (Lev. xvii. 11.) — On these words Bishop 
Patrick remarks : " The words, as they lie in the Hebrew, 
may well be translated, Because the life of thejlesh (of any 
beast that is) is in the blood, therefore, / have given it to 
you (or appointed it for you) upon the altar, to make an atone- 
ment : which is as much as to say, The life of the beast 
lying in the blood, I have ordained it to expiate your sins, 
that by its death in your stead, your life may be preserved : 
and therefore I require you not to eat that, which is ap- 
pointed for so holy an end."-j- — But as " the law made 

* Revelation examined with Candour, ul sup. 
■j- Patrick in loc. 



OF BLOOD. 85 

nothing perfect," we are not to suppose that the blood of 
brute animals made an actual propitiation for sin, but only 
that the blood of bulls, and of goats, and of other animals, 
adumbrated the blood of Jesus Christ, which was " shed for 
many for the remission of sins," and who himself was the true 
"propitiation for the sins of the whole world." Nothing, 
therefore, could be more rational than the precept which 
enjoined, that a thing so sacred in its typical reference, as to 
be peculiarly appointed for "an atonement upon the altar," 
should not lose that honour and esteem which was due to 
it ; which it would most assuredly have done, had it been 
permitted to be eaten as a common nutriment. 

We may, therefore, conclude this section in the words 
of a modern and very able writer : " To us* these ancient 
references to things now distinctly seen, must yield incontro- 
vertible demonstrations of the firm foundation of our faith : 
— the import of each former ordinance is resolved — every 
enigma and every symbol which darkened the Jewish dis- 
pensation, has passed away — we no longer require high- 
priests " daily to offer sacrifices, first for their own sins, 
then for those of the people," those continued exactions have 
been superseded by the one, full, perfect, and sufficient 
sacrifice, oblation, and satisfaction of the Son of God, who 
being constituted our High-Priest, after the power of an 
endless life; and having accomplished the purposes of his 
manifestation in the flesh, " is set down on the right hand of 
the throne of the Majesty in the heavens :" there, ever 
living to make intercession for us, He abideth a Priest for 
ever after the order of Melchizedek."* 

As to the question of the permanency of the prohibition, 
different persons will judge very differently respecting it, 
according as they view it. merely as a ritual precept, or as 
involving considerations both moral and physical. The 
former will at once decide on its temporary and evanescent 

*Dr. D. G. Wait's Sermons. Sermon iii. p. 115. 



86 THE PROHIBITION OF BLOOD. 

character, and pronounce it to be no longer obligatory on 
the professors of Christianity : the latter, acknowledging its 
authority to have ceased as a ceremonial rite, are, neverthe- 
less, inclined to regard it as still being of considerable im- 
portance and utility, and adopt a series of arguments, which, 
to say the least of them, are exceedingly plausible and 
deserving of attention. For, according to the advocates of 
the permanent nature of the injunction, Blood was forbidden 
in the Noahic grant of animal food, long prior to the Leviti- 
cal institutions, and therefore not dependant upon them ; 
the Apostles enjoined on the first Gentile churches, to 
abstain, as " necessary things," from " things strangled and 
from blood," as well as from " fornication and meats offered 
to idols ;" the pouring out of the blood of slain animals may, 
with equal propriety, be regarded now, as formerly, as an 
acknowledgement of entire dependance upon God, as the 
Author and Disposer of life. There are still barbarous and 
savage nations to be influenced by the mild character and 
practices of Christianity, and bloody and inhuman customs 
to be subdued by its example and temper. The nature of 
blood itself remains unaltered, and consequently has still 
the same tendency to generate gross and scorbutic humours, 
though checked in their virulence by the difference in our 
climate and our general habits : — and blood is still, com- 
paratively, an indigestible and innutritive aliment. Hence 
the supporters of this opinion are induced to believe, that to 
abstain from blood in every form is most consistent with 
temperance, prudence, and religious caution. But, sub 
judice lis est ; " Let every man be fully persuaded in his 
own mind ;" for " he that doubteth, is condemned if he 
eat." — Rom. xiv, 7, 23. 



DISSERTATION VI. 

ON 

THE TYPICAL CHARACTER 

OF THE 

MOSAIC INSTITUTIONS. 



V f^HE adumbration of important moral truths by sensible 
symbols and representations, may be traced to the 
earliest periods, and to a divine original. In the garden 
of Eden, the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, and 
on the expulsion of our first parents from the garden for 
their violation of the easy test of obedience assigned by 
their Creator, the Cherubims who guarded the entrance to 
prevent return, were certainly symbolical in their character. 
In Patriarchal times, the appearance of the Divine glory 
or Shechinah passing between the divided animals, when 
God entered into covenant with Abraham, was similar in 
its nature, though its object was different. When, there- 
fore, Jehovah instituted a ceremonial amongst the Jews, 
introductory to a more spiritual and perfect dispensation, 
it might naturally be expected that its character would be 
typical and prospective, symbolizing the principal events 
and truths of that superior and more sublime economy ; in 
other words, that it should be " a schoolmaster to bring 
us to Christ." 



88 THE TYPICAL CHARACTER OF 

In accordance with these views, the author of the Epistle 
to the Hebrews, has exhibited many of the coincidences 
or agreements between the Mosaic Ceremonial, and its 
glorious antitype, the Gospel ; and has fully substantiated 
the principle of tbe representative nature of the Levitical 
persons, institutions, and ceremonies. 

The fanciful similitudes in which the unbridled imagi- 
nation of some divines has indulged, in the comparisons 
which they have instituted between the legal and evange- 
lical dispensations, have too frequently marked rather the 
ardent piety of their authors, than their exercise of sober 
and well-disciplined minds ; and led some to discard alto- 
gether, without sufficient caution, the idea of the shadowy 
and representative design of many of the institutions of 
Moses. But we can never justly reason from the misap- 
plication of a principle, to the inconsistency and absurdity 
of the principle itself. The want of sobriety in writers on 
typical subjects, and the extravagance of some of their 
illustrative positions, can never, therefore, destroy the 
importance or utility of a judicious exemplification of the 
various points of agreement of the symbolical with the 
anti-typical dispensation. Such a view of the whole of the 
representative system of Mosos is highly desirable ; we 
therefore hail the appearance of such works as the Ser- 
mons of Chevalier, on the Historical Persons of the Old 
Testament, — and those of Dr. D. G. Wait, in which cer- 
tain peculiarities of the Patriarchal, the Mosaic, and the 
Christian Dispensations are discussed with great learning 
and ability ; whilst the excellent work of Mather, " The 
Figures and Types of the Old Testament," (London, 1705, 
4sto.) must ever retain its value, until superseded by 
some other more modern and complete. Under these 
impressions, the following brief observations are presented 
to the reader, as supplementary to the remarks of our 
learned Jewish author, Maimonides. 



THE MOSAIC INSTITUTIONS. 89 

The whole of the Mosaic system was admirably suited 
to the state of a people just escaped from cruel bondage, and 
whose minds had been debased and sensualized by laborious 
servitude and idolatrous example ; but who were destined by 
the providence of God, to be the depositaries of the Sacred 
Oracles, and the progenitors of the great Messiah. By 
its wise constitution, it at once served as a guard against 
idolatry, and as a typical economy to impress the mind 
with moral sentiments through the medium of sensible 
symbols, and adumbrate the advent of the Redeemer, and 
the glories of his kingdom, by its prospective institutions. 
The treatise of Maimonides sufficiently exhibits its anti- 
idolatrous character ; but a few remarks in illustration of 
its moral and prophetic objects may not be deemed super- 
fluous, as introductory to that treatise. 

1. One of the first and most important moral considera- 
tions is, the necessity of purity or holiness, both in heart 
and conduct. For whether we regard the holiness and 
purity of the Divine Being as demanding ail assimilation 
to his nature; or, the influence produced on our own hap- 
piness by the cultivation of purity in principle and practice, 
it will appear to be indispensably requisite in the true wor- 
shipper of God. " Ye shall be holy," saith the Lord, 
" for I am holy." — " Without holiness no man shall see 
the Lord." — " Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall 
see God." These moral truths were, therefore, eminently 
symbolized by the various and frequent ablutions, and 
separations for legal defilement and uncleanness, insti- 
tuted by the Levitical ceremonial. 

For the Ablutions of the Israelites were instituted, not 
only on account of their propriety in those warm countries, 
but for the sake also of their moral signification, being 
impressively emblematical of inward purity and holiness : 

For, from the Body's purity, the mind 
Receives a secret sympathetic aid. 



90 THE TYPICAL CHARACTER OF 

Few, indeed, could have been so ignorant, even under 
that obscure dispensation, as to imagine that these Cere- 
monies of it were instituted for their own sake merely, or 
from any intrinsic value or efficacy they possessed to sanc- 
tify the worshippers. They must have had a moral 
couched under them ; and were intended to be emblema- 
tical of that Purity which was requisite to render their 
approaches to the Deity acceptable, and of the obligations 
upon them to impress their hearts with a sense of the 
purity and holiness of the God they worshipped. At 
the same time these ritual services had also a direct ten- 
dency to promote these valuable ends, and were admirably 
calculated to guard the Israelites against the use of those 
superstitious, and, some of them, barbarous rites, that 
obtained by way of lustration, in the worship of their 
Heathen neighbours. In particular, they were fond of 
purgations by wind, fire, and water ; to which the poet 
seems to allude, when he says : 

Quin, et supremo cum lumine vita reliquit 
Non tamen omne malum miseris, &c. 

Ev'n when their bodies are to death resign'd, 

Some old inherent spots are left behind ; 

A sullying tincture of corporeal stains, 

Deep in the substance of the soul remains, 

Thus are her splendours dimm'd, and crusted o'er 

With those dark vices, that she knew before. 

For this the souls a various penance pay, 

To purge the taint of former crimes away : 

Some in the sweeping breezes are refin'd, 

And hung on high to whiten in the wind : 

Some cleanse their stains beneath the gushing streams, 

And some rise glorious from the scorching flames. 

Pitt's Virgil, B. vi. 

It was, therefore, the intention of the legal ablutions 
and separations, and other rites of a purifying character, 
to guard against idolatrous practices, and to eradicate 
idolatrous principles, and especially by the symbols of 



THE MOSAIC INSTITUTIONS. 91 

bodily lustrations to enforce that inward holiness, without 
which the whole system would have been vain and unac- 
ceptable to God.* See Levit. xv. — Numbers xix. 

% Nearly allied to the inculcation of Purity, is that of 
the Mortification of inordinate and sensual appetites, figur- 
atively expressed in the Mosaic economy, by repeated 
restrictions, under particular circumstances, of gratifications 
lawful in themselves; and by the injunctions of frequent 
legal purifications after sensual indulgences, as well as by 
the ordinance of the painful rite of Circumcision. — See 
Exod. xix. 14, 15. — 1 Sam. xxi. 4, 5. — Levit. xviii. 19.— 
Levit. xv. 16—18. 

Circumcision, the first institution of which is recorded 
Gen. xvii. 10, 11, was the seal of the covenant made with 
Abraham, and designed to confirm his faith, and that of 
his posterity, in the promises made to him and them by the 
Divine Author of this typical rite. It served also as a 
mark of distinction from other nations ; and having, like 
the other rites of Judaism, an important moral couched 
under it, reminded them of the promise of God, and 
encouraged them in his service, and at the same time inti- 
mated to them " the obligations they were under to mortify 
every irregular appetite, by representing the indulgence of 
these as incompatible with the character of a people devoted 
to God, or who would hope that their services would be 
acceptable to Him.'" Circumcision, then, was such a valu- 
able mark in the flesh, as was very fit to be a sign to all the 
seed of Abraham, that they were to account themselves an 

* See Shaw's Philosophy of Judaism, P. i. ch. i. p, 178, and Atkin's 
Attempt to illustrate the Jewish Law, pp. 211 — 237. — Lowman on the 
Hebrew Ritual, pp. 224 — 228. Those who wish to see the numerous ablu- 
tions and Purifications of the more modern Jews, as exemplifying the wisdom 
of Our Lord's censures on the Tradition of the Elders, will find themselves 
repaid by consulting Surenhusii Mischka, in Seder Tahoroth, or Order 
of Purifications ; or Dr. Wotton's Analysis of it in his Miscellaneous Dis- 
courses, vol. i, pp. 160 — 176. 



92 THE TYPICAL CHARACTER OF 

holy nation, as his seed ; that they were obliged to keep up 
an holy nation to Jehovah in that family, and in so doing 
assure themselves of the peculiar favour of Jehovah, such 
as He showed to their forefathers as their God ; and further 
taught them, that the covenant between God and them, 
required not barely a ceremonial holiness, but, what was 
the true meaning of it, to circumcise their hearts, so as to 
love and to honour the Lord their God with all their hearts, 
and in all the acts of true righteousness and goodness."* 

3. The defection of man, and the necessity of atonement 
by a vicarious sacrifice, were strongly marked in the whole 
of the sacrificial system, by which an innocent victim was 
substituted for the guilty transgressor ; whilst the inferio- 
rity of brute animals sacrificed in the stead of man, and 
the constant recurrence of sacrifice, must impress every 
rational and thinking person with a conviction, that it 
was not possible that " the blood of bulls and of goats 
should take away sins," and could, therefore, only be 
deemed efficacious by an ulterior reference to a more worthy 
and meritorious oblation, not hitherto offered, but to 
which their faith was directed by the intimations of tradi- 
tion and prophecy. " For the force of the reason is this, that 
seeing the effect is to take away sin, it must have a cause 
sufficient to produce it; but the blood of bulls and of 
goats, which was the principal thing in the legal annual 
sacrifices, was no such cause, it had no such virtue ; the 
effect was so far above it, that there was no possibility that 
such a cause should reach it. For every cause doth work 
according to its power, as it is greater or less ; but if there 
be no power at all in respect of any particular effect, in 
respect of that it can do nothing at all. The blood of bulls 
and goats might be a sign of that blood that could take 

* Lowman on the Hebrew Ritual, p. 217 — Shaw's History and Philo- 
sophy of Judaism, p. 78. — See also Mather's Figures or Types of the Old 
Testament, pp. 173—184. Lond. 1705, 4to. 



THE MOSAIC INSTITUTIONS. 93 

away sin ; but take it away, or any ways actively concur 
to the taking away thereof, it could not. Such an effect, 
so great and glorious, and so beneficial to sinful man, 
must have some excellent and powerful cause, such as the 
blood of bulls and goats cannot be. As the beasts, so the 
blood was, morally, neither bad nor good, but indifferent ; 
and, though offering and sprinkling of this blood was a 
rational act in the High Priest, yet it could give no moral, 
spiritual, or supernatural power to the blood : neither 
could the Priest have had any warrant to have made use of 
this blood, if God had not commanded him, and that to 
signify some better and far more excellent blood. There- 
fore, if we look upon the blood, and consider what it was, 
we cannot rationally imagine any power in it, either to 
satisfy Divine justice, or to merit any acceptation for that 
end from the Supreme Judge."* 

How far the Jews themselves were aware of the inefficacy 
of their expiatory sacrifices, except as they had reference 
to the atonement that would be made by the great vicarious 
sacrifice of the Messiah, is not easy to decide. Were it pos- 
sible for us to ascertain the manner in which the Levites 
studied the Law, and to discover their ideas of its symbol- 
ical sense, we might then reason with correctness, on their 
views of the ultimate reference of their piacular sacrifices. 
It is, however, certain, that the Prophetic books fully 
warrant the assertion, that the types were studied with 
reference to Him ; and there is a variety of evidences in 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the minor Prophets, that they 
devoted their attention to the types ; and the whole book 
of Ezekiel is constructed on a typical or allegorical model. 
The typical actions, by which they enforced their predic- 
tions on some occasions, were doubtless in unison with that 



* Lawson's Exposition of the Epistle to the Hebrews, ch. ix, 
199, 200. Lond, 1662, fol. 

G 



94 THE TYPICAL CHARACTER OF 

taste for 'symbols- and typical imagery, which the nature of 
the Levitical institutions had excited in the public mind ; 
and consequently shows, that this influence which they 
had acquired over the nation must have resulted from a 
long study of them. But whether the great body of the 
people discerned, though distantly and faintly, the great 
object of faith and the perfect oblation and sacrifice that he 
would offer or not ; still it is certain from the language of 
Prophecy, as in the 53d chapter of Isaiah, and from the 
declarations of the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, 
that some of the worthies of Israel saw and rejoiced in the 
day of Christ, with more or less distinctness of spiritual 
vision. (See Heb. xi. — John viii. 56.}* 

For as the Jewish High Priest was a shadowy image of 
Jesus Christ, our High Priest, and the inner sanctuary of 
the temple was a figure of heaven itself; so also, the sacred 
incense which used to be burnt, both in the holy and in the 
most holy place, represented the prayers of the church, and 
hence the name of the thing signified is given to the sign, 
and those sacred odours are called " the prayers of the 
saints ;" the burning of incense, therefore, before God_, by 
the Jewish High Priest, in the inner sanctuary, prefigured 
our High Priest now in heaven, commending to God the 
prayers of his church. -f* 

" The oracular type of Urim and Thummim,J was most 
eminently fulfilled in Jesus Christ, the only true High 
Priest, in and by whom alone God speaks his mind, and 
works his image in us. ' In him are hidden all the trea- 

* Dr. Wait's Course of Sermons, Serin, ii, p. 48. 
f Outram on Sacrifices, translated by J. Allen, p. 366. 
$ The Breast-plate, a garment peculiarly appointed for the high -priest, 
Exod. xxvii. 15. was, according to Dr. Lightfoot, " a rich piece of cloth 
of gold, an hand-breadth square, double, and set with twelve precious 
stones, in four rows, three in a row : these," he adds, " are called Urim and 
Thummim, Exod. xxviii. 30." The manner in which the answer was given, 
was not by any shining of the stones, or voice of an image, but by an audible 



THE MOSAIC INSTITUTIONS. 95 

sures of wisdom and knowledge ;' (Col. ii. 3.) and He is holy 
and harmless, and separate from sinners. * For such an 
High Priest became us, who is holy, harmless, undefiled, 
separate from sinners.' (Heb. vii. 26.) He wears the true 
Urim and Thummim always upon his heart : — Illumina- 
tions and Perfections, Lights and Graces in the highest ; 
and we have nothing of either, but what we have from 
him. Our Lights are from him. (2 Cor. iv. 6. — Matt. ix. 
27.) — Our Graces from him. — ' Of his fulness have all we 
received, and grace for grace. 1 (John i. 16.) — * For the 
Law was given by Moses," — these legal shadows of terror 
and darkness. — i But Grace and Truth came by Jesus 
Christ : ? (v. 17.) — Grace, instead of legal terror and 
rigour : — Truth, that is, accomplishments and perform- 
ances, instead of shadows and promises, came by Jesus 
Christ. It follows, — ' No man hath seen God at any time, 1 
that is, by any light, or grace, or power of his own, ' but 
the only begotten Son which is in the bosom of the Father, 
He hath declared Him. 1 (v. 18.) — The true Urim and 
Thummim is in the Pectoral of Jesus Christ ; all our 
illuminations and perfections are in him.' 1 * 

5. The temporary separation betwixt Jew and Gentile, 
and of the dispensation itself, was marked by the exclusive 
character of the Jewish ritual, which forbade Gentiles to 
offer the legal sacrifices unless initiated by the rite of cir- 
cumcision ; and which, by enjoining all the males to 

voice from the presence or Shechinah : as " Moses heard the voice of one 
speaking to him from off the mercy -seat." (Numhers vii. 29.) The names of 
Urim and Thumim were given to denote the clearness and perfection of the 
oracular answers ; for Urim signifies light, and Thummim, perfection. For 
these answers were not like those of the heathen oracles, enigmatical and 
ambiguous, but always clear and manifest, and their truth ever certain and 
infallible. — Lowman on the Heb. Ritual, p. 127. — Prideaux Con. part 1. 
b. iii. p. 153. Lond. 1719, Svo. 

* Mather's Figures and Types of the Old Testament, p. 513. 



96 THE TYPICAL CHARACTER OF 

appear thrice every year at Jerusalem, rendered the uni- 
versal diffusion of Judaism impracticable. The vail too, 
which separated the people from the most Holy Place, 
indicated that universal access, even to the mercy-seat, was 
not yet permitted. 

For although the peculiar construction of the tabernacle, 
and the exclusive character of the Jewish rites,, might not 
have been sufficient of themselves to prove to the believing 
Israelite, that the Mosaic dispensation was temporary in 
its nature ; yet, when connected with the Abrahamic pro- 
mises and subsequent prophecies, it was demonstrably evi- 
dent that those promises and prophecies could never be 
accomplished without an entire change of system, by throw- 
ing down the wall of separation between Jew and Gentile ; 
nor a general entrance be opened into the immediate presence 
of the Divine glory, but by the rending of the veil which 
separated even the " holy" from the " most Holy Place." 
— ." When, at the death of Christ," says Dr. A. Clarke, 
" the veil of the temple was rent from the top to the 
bottom, it was an emblem that the way to the holiest was 
laid open, and that the people at large, both Jews and 
Gentiles, were to have aceess to the holiest by the blood of 
Jesus.'''' — The writings of the Jews themselves also prove, 
that the impression produced on their minds by the pro- 
mises and prophecies was similar to what we have sup- 
posed, and that they entertained an expectation of a gene- 
ral diffusion of Divine knowledge. In Sohar Chadash, it 
is said, " In the days of the Messiah, knowledge shall be 
renewed in the world, and the Law shall be made plain 
among all ; as it is written, Jer. xxxi. S3, All shall know 
me from the least to the greatest.' 1 '' — In Midrash Yalcut 
Simeoni, we find the following legend : — " The Holy 
Blessed God shall sit in Paradise and explain the law ; 
all the righteous shall sit before Him, and the whole 
heavenly family shall stand on their feet ; and the Holy 



THE MOSAIC INSTITUTIONS. 97 

Blessed God shall sit, and the new Law which He is to give 

by the Messiah, shall be interpreted ;"" — and in Sohar Levit. 

" There shall be no time like this till the Messiah comes?; 

and then the knowledge of God shall be found in every 

part of the world."* 

6. The annual entrance of the High Priest into the Holy 

of Holies, and into the immediate presence of the She. 

chinah, or symbol of the Divine Glory, sprinkled with 

blood, and sprinkling the mercy-seat with blood, taught 
the people by a sensible representation that " without 

shedding of blood there could be no remission of sin," nor 
an entrance be administered into the " eternal inheritance 
of the saints in light." 

" Of all the rites [of the Mosaic institute] the sprinkling 
of the blood was the most sacred; because by that act, the 
life of the victim was considered as presented to God the 
Supreme Lord of life and death : — and as the High Priest 
of the Jews carried the blood (the vehicle of the life or 
sensitive soul) of the victims, into the innermost sanctuary 
of the temple, as a sign of the previous immolation of 
them, and sprinkled it towards the mercy-seat ; so our 
High Priest, in Jieaven itself, which that sanctuary pre- 
figured, presents before God, not only the soul, but also 
the body, of the victim that was slain for our sins. — For 
.the blood of those victims winch were the principal types 
of Christ, was carried into the holy of holies which typified 
heaven itself."-f- 

7. The principal Festivals of the Jewish church were 
the Passover, the feast of Pentecost, and the feast of 
Tabernacles. The first of these was commemorative of the 
deliverance from Egypt, and the second of the promulga- 
tion of the Law on Sinai, as the last was, of the Israelites 

* Dr. A, Clarke's Commentary on £ph. ii. 13. and Heb. viii. 1 1 — 13. 
■j- Outram's Dissertations on Sacrifice, translated by John Allen—Diss. i. 
c. xvi. p. 195 ; and Diss. ii. c. iii. p. 217. London, 1817, 8vo. 



98 THE TYPICAL CHARACTER OF 

dwelling in booths or tabernacles in the wilderness. Of 
the figurative design of the two former of these festivals, 
there is no doubt ; the analogy between the Paschal Sacri- 
fice and the sufferings of our Lord, between the Delivery 
of the Law and the Effusion of the Holy Spirit, having 
been remarked and acknowledged from the earliest period 
of the Gospel. — But the intention of the institution of the 
Feast of Tabernacles as a figurative festival, has not been 
so clearly explained. Some have supposed that it was 
designed to instruct the Israelites, " that they were but 
pilgrims and strangers here below, sojourners as it were in 
a strange land, passing through it to their own country, 
towards their own home.'" — The opinion, however, which 
seems most analogous to the objects symbolized by the 
other festivals, is that which regards it as shadowing forth 
the conversion and restoration of the Jewish nation. The 
Rev. Dr. Elrington has defended this view of its object 
with considerable ingenuity and force. — " That the Jews, 1 ' 
says he, " annually observed three great festivals at Jeru- 
salem, and that two of them, the Passover and the Feast of 
Pentecost, had a reference to events, which were to hap- 
pen under the Christian dispensation, is well known. 
Hence, we are led to consider, whether the third solemnity 
was of a similar nature, and has received a similar com- 
pletion. This was the Feast of Tabernacles, beginning on 
the fifteenth day of the seventh month ; when for seven 
days all that were Israelites born, were to dwell in booths, 
in remembrance of their dwelling in booths when they were 
brought out of the land of Egypt, and on the eighth day 
to return to their houses, celebrating it with great rejoic- 
ings. Levit. xxiii. 34, 35, 36, 42, 43. 

" Now it is evident, that no circumstance attending the 
establishment of Christianity, had any resemblance to the 
journey through the wilderness, and the dwelling there 
under tents ; nor has any attempt been made, to prove a 
similarity of the sort. We must, therefore, either admit 



THE MOSAIC INSTITUTIONS. 99 

that this Feast of Tabernacles differs from the others, in 
having no prospective reference ; or we must seek in some 
future event its completion or antitype ; and it will pro- 
bably incline us to this latter opinion, when we consider, 
that the Jews will undoubtedly be brought back to Judea, 
when the fulness of the Gentiles shall be come in ; and if 
we suppose the season of the Feast of Tabernacles to coin- 
cide with that of their future return, as it appears to have 
done with their return from the Babylonish Captivity, we 
shall have a fulfilment of the three Jewish festivals com- 
pleted finally in the conversion of the Jews to Christianity, 
which, with their return to their own land, will furnish a 
perpetual cause for thanksgiving and religious observance. 

" Of the reference of this festival to the final restoration 
of the Jews, some of their traditions and practices may, 
perhaps, afford a further confirmation. It was their cus- 
tom on the last day of the feast, to bring water from the 
fountain of Siloah, which the priests poured on the altar, 
singing the words of Isaiah, (xii. 3,) With joy shall ye 
draw water from the fountain of salvation ; which words 
the Targum interprets, With joy shall ye receive a new doc- 
trine from the elect of' the just ; and they appear from the 
preceding chapter, to relate to the final restoration of the 
Jews. The feast itself was also called Hosanna, Save 
we beseech thee ; and was the time when our Lord spoke 
the remarkable words mentioned in St. John, (ch. vii. 37, 
38,) marking the relation which the ceremony of pouring 
out the water bore to his ministry. And among the tradi- 
tions of the Jews we find that the defeat of Gog and Magog 
shall fall out upon the feast of Tabernacles, or that the 
consequent seven months cleansing of the land (Ezek. 
xxxix. 12,) shall terminate at that period; and there seems 
little reason to doubt the reference of that prophecy to the 
final restoration of the Jews."* 

* Graves's Lectures on the Four last books of the Pentateuch, vol. ii. pp. 
1S2— 485. Lond. 180?, 8vo. 



100 THE TYPICAL CHARACTER OF 

8. Of the emblematical and introductory nature of the 
Mosaic dispensation, and its adumbration of spiritual and 
Divine privileges, intimations were frequently given by 
prophetic explanations and promises. " I will raise them 
up a Prophet from among their brethren, like unto thee, 
and will put my words in his mouth." (Deut. xviii. 18, 19.) 
— " Behold the days come when I will make a New 
Covenant with the house of Israel; not according to the 
covenant that I made with their fathers" (Jer. xxxi, 31, 
32, 33, 34.) — " Sacrifice and offering thou wouldest not, 
but a body hast thou prepared me.' 1 (Psalm xl. 6, 7, 8.) 
— " Yet once, it is a little while, and I will shake the heavens, 
and the earth, and the sea, and the dry land ; and I will 
shake all nations, and the Desire of all nations shall come."" 
(Haggai ii. 6, 7.) — "Behold to obey is better than sacri- 
fice." (1 Sam. xv. 22.) — " The Lord God will circumcise 
thine heart." (Deut. xxx. 6.) 

" If we, therefore, advert to the internal structure of 
the Law, which was accommodated to the temporary cir- 
cumstances of the Israelites, restricted as it was from the 
nature of the times, and the genius of the people, who 
were thus appointed the guardians of God's truth and 
oracles, it will appear most eminently adapted to the pre- 
servation of the more ancient promises and revelations, and 
in every way fitted to be the connecting medium between 
the patriarchal economy and the Gospel. Its very defi- 
ciencies contained indications, that the end of its institution 
remained to be accomplished ; its obscurities intimated, that 
its object and intent would hereafter be plenarily disclosed. 
Its whole catalogue of ceremonies was so constructed, that, 
surrounded as the Hebrews were by nations, who veiled 
their esoteric faith in external symbols or hieroglyphical 
devices, it was impossible that they should not have directed 
the inquirer, even at the time when they were confining 
him to the pure worship of the One Eternal God, to 
have sought in them a hidden and fuller signification ; and. 



THE MOSAIC INSTITUTIONS. 101 

if at any time observant of the depravity of the Canaanite, 
or inquisitive respecting the superstitions of the house of 
bondage, the Israelite might have been induced to com- 
pare his legislative code with the laws of other communities, 
he must have perceived, that it had proceeded beyond 
the cultivation of the rest of the world ; and could not 
have failed to have remarked, that it ranked above all 
others in a pre-eminent distinction, that, bearing the im- 
press of divine revelation, it contained provisions for the 
future, and prefigured, in its whole body of services, a far 
more expansive, although distant communication from God 
to man. And although these evidences were dispersed 
through the whole economy, they nevertheless may be said 
to have been more especially comprised in the types which 
rendered the sacrifices, oblations, and expiations, figura- 
tive of Him, in whom they were ordained to receive their 
completion in the fulness of time : and as they supplied 
the student of Moses with the requisites to identify the 
true Messiah at his appearance, and established an union 
between the two Testaments, which then evinced both 
to have been revealed by the same All-wise Being, so 
they doubtless compensated to the Israelites for the 
absence of those mysteries and secret rites which the 
Gentiles had engrafted on Theology, and which even the 
divinely-taught Hebrew appears, from his numerous defec- 
tions and his endless propensity to idolatry, to have re- 
quired."* 

* Dr. D. G. Wait's Course of Sermons, preached before the University of 
Cambridge, in the year 1825.— Sermon ii. pp. 40 — 45, Lond. 1826. 8vo. 



DISSERTATION VIL 



THE LEPROSY 



npHE Leprosy derives its name from the Greek term 
Ke7rga (lepra) from As7n; (lepis) a scale, the body, in 
this dreadful disease, being covered with thin white scales? 
or smooth shining- patches, so as to give it, in some instances, 
the appearance of snow. Nosologists class some species of 
this malady under the order Squama, or scaly diseases, 
and other species of it under the order Tuberculce, or 
tubercular affections. That kind of Leprosy which is 
described by Moses in Leviticus xiii, appears to have been 
what was termed by the Greeks Leuce, (Aeux>j,) and by the 
Arabians Albaras, or more correctly Baras. In some 
instances it has been considered as assuming the form of 
Elephantiasis, and in others not appearing very dissimilar 
from the Frambasia, or Yaws, of the West Indies.* 

The Leuce or White Leprosy is thus described by Mr. 
Robinson, a medical practitioner of India : — " One or two 
circumscribed patches appear upon the skin, (generally the 
feet or hands, but sometimes the trunk or face,) rather 
lighter-coloured than the neighbouring skin, neither raised 
nor depressed, shining and wrinkled, the furrows not 
co-inciding with the lines of the contiguous sound cuticle. 

* See Dr. T. Bateman's Practical Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases : Order 
II. p. 25, and Order VII, p. 273, London 1819, 8vo., Fifth edition. 



THE LEPROSY. 103 

The skin thus circumscribed is so entirely insensible, that 
you may with hot irons burn to the muscle, before the 
patient feels any pain. These patches spread slowly until 
the skin of the whole of the legs, arms, and gradually 
often of the whole body, becomes alike devoid of sense : 
wherever it is so affected, there is no perspiration ; no 
itching, no pain, and very seldom any swelling. Until 
this singular apathy has occupied the greater part of the 
skin, it may rather be considered a blemish than a disease : 
nevertheless it is most important to mark well these appear- 
ances, for they are the invariable commencement of the 
most gigantic and incurable diseases, that have succeeded 
the fall of man : and it is in this state chiefly (though not 
exclusively) that we are most able to be the means of cure. 
The next symptoms — are the first which denote internal 
disease or derangement of any functions. The pulse 
becomes very slow, not small but heavy, ' as if moving 
through mud :' — the toes and fingers numbed, as with frost, 
glazed and rather swelled, and nearly inflexible. The mind 
is at this time sluggish and slow in apprehension, and the 
patient appears always half asleep. The soles of the feet 
and the palms of the hands then crack into fissures, dry, and 
hard as the parched soil of the country ; and the extremities 
of the toes and fingers under the nails are incrusted with a 
furfuraceous substance, and the nails are gradually lifted 
up, until absorption and ulceration occur. Still there is 
little or no pain ; the legs and fore-arms swell, and the 
skin is every where cracked and rough. Contemporary with 
the last symptoms, or very soon afterwards, ulcers appear 
at the inside of the joints of the toes and fingers, directly 
under the last joint of the metatarsal or metacarpal bones, 
or they corrode the thick sole under the joint of the os 
calcis, or os cuboides. There is no previous tumour, sup- 
puration, or pain, but apparently a simple absorption of 
the integuments, which slough off in successive layers of 
half an inch in diameter. A sanious discharge comes on ; 



104 THE LEPROSY. 

the muscle pale and flabby, is in turn destroyed ; and the 
joint being penetrated as by an augur, the extremity 
droops, and at length falls a victim to this cruel, tardy, 
but certain poison. The wounds then heal, and other 
joints are attacked in succession, whilst every revolving year 
bears with it a trophy of this slow march of death. Thus 
are the limbs deprived one by one of their extremities, till 
at last they become altogether useless. Even now death 
comes not to the relief of, nor is desired by the patient, who 
< dying by inches, 1 and a spectacle of horror to all besides, 
still cherishes fondly the spark of life remaining, and eats 
voraciously all he can procure : he will often crawl about 
with little but his trunk remaining, until old age comes on, 
and at last he is carried off by diarrhoea or dysentery, 
which the enfeebled constitution has no stamina to resist.""* 
In the Elephantiasis, to which the Leuce or Baras may 
be considered as having an affinity, and probably sometimes 
terminating in it, " the tubercles," when the malady has 
for some time proceeded, " begin to crack, and at length to 
ulcerate : ulcerations also appear in the throat, and in the 
nose, which sometimes destroy the palate and the cartilagi- 
nous septum ; the nose falls ; and the breath is intolerably 
offensive : the thickened and tuberculated skin of the 
extremities becomes divided by fissures, and ulcerates, or 
is corroded under dry sordid scales, so that the fingers and 
toes gangrene and separate, joint after joint. — Aretaeus and 
the ancients in general consider Elephantiasis as an universal 
cancer of the body, and speak of it with terror.^f Accord- 
ing to Dr. J. M. Good, this disease is called by the 
Arabians juzam and juzamlyk, though more generally, 
judam and judamlyk, from an Arabic root which imports 
erosion, truncation, excision. From Arabic the term 
juzam has passed into India, and is the common name for 

* Ibid, pp. 311— 313. 
f Ibid, pp. 302, 303. 



THE LEPROSY. 105 

the same disease, among the Cabirajas, or Hindoo phy- 
sicians, who also occasionally denominate it Fisddi Jchun, 
from its being supposed to infect the entire mass of blood, 
but more generally Mom.* 

Maundrell, in a letter appended to his Travels, tells us, 
that at Sichern, (now Naplosa,) he saw several Lepers, 
who came begging to him all at the same time : " The 
distemper," says he, "as I saw it on them, was quite 
different from what I have seen it in England ; for it not 
only defiles the whole surface of the body with a foul scurf, 
but also deforms the joints of the body, particularly those 
of the wrists and ankles, making them swell with a gouty 
scrofulous substance, very loathsome to look upon. I 
thought their legs like those of old battered horses, such 
as are often seen in drays in England. The whole distemper 
indeed, as it there appeared, was so noisome, that it might 
well pass for the utmost corruption of the human body on 
this side the grave : and, certainly, the inspired penmen 
couldg not have found out a fitter emblem, whereby to 
express the^uncleanness and odiousness of vice."-f- 

Michaelis in his Commentaries on the Laws of Moses 
(Civ.': Part ii. Art. 207, 208, 209, 210, 211,) has entered 
at large into a discussion of the nature of the Jewish 
Leprosy, and also shown with much force of reasoning the 
wisdom| of the Mosaic regulations for the prevention of 
contagion, and reducing the virulence of the disease itself- 
He} t states [that M. Peyssonel, a physician, was sent to 
Guadaloupe to enquire into the nature of the Leprosy that 
broke out in that island, about 1730 ; and details from 
him an account of the disease very similar to what has been 
already given ; to which M. Peyssonel adds, — " It has 
been remarked, that this horrible disorder has, besides, 
some very lamentable properties ; as, in the first place, 

* Ibid, p. 317, note. 
-f- Dr. A. Clarke's Comment, on Levit. xiii. 2. 



106 THE LEFROSY. 

that it is hereditary; and hence some families are more 
affected with it than others : secondly, that it is infectious ; 
— thirdly, that it is incurable, or at least no means of cure 
have hitherto been discovered."* 

After the lapse of several thousand years, Leprosy is 
still a common disease throughout all Syria : it was, of 
course, endemic in Palestine, the country into which 
Moses conducted the Israelites. In Egypt, where they 
had previously dwelt, it is said to be still more frequent and 
virulent. To this the climate, no doubt, contributed in 
some degree. But other causes beside this may have tended 
to increase its influence among the Israelites. They were 
poor, and had been oppressed ; and cutaneous diseases, and 
indeed almost all kinds of infectious disorders, prevail most 
among the poor, because they cannot keep themselves 
cleanly, and at a distance from infected persons. They 
had also partly dwelt in the damp and marshy parts of 
Egypt, and facts have proved that a very damp situation 
will produce, if not leprosy itself, at least a disease very 
similar to it. It is likewise material to notice, that their 
residence along the Nile and the marshy districts, rendered 
it easy for them to procure different kinds of fish, than 
which nothing, it is said, more effectually spreads and 
aggravates cutaneous disorders, if constantly or even fre- 
quently used as the entire or principal diet ; thus we find 
at this day, in Norway and Iceland, a disorder, which, if 
not leprosy, comes very near it in similarity of symptoms, 
and which is ascribed to their eating great quantities of 
fish.t 

During the Crusades, numbers of the pilgrims and soldiers 
who visited the East, were affected with severe cutaneous 
diseases; by whom the Leprosy is said to have been imported 

* Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, vol. iii. Art. 208. pp. 
258—260. 

f Ibid, pp. 273—277. 



THE LEPROSY. 107 

into Europe, and to have become extensively prevalent. It 
is certain that every country, abounded with hospitals, 
established for the exclusive relief of that disease, from the 
tenth to the sixteenth century ; and that an order of knight- 
hood, dedicated to St. Lazarus, was instituted, the members 
of which had the care of lepers, and the controul of the 
Lazarettoes assigned to them, and ultimately accumulated 
immense wealth.* Inll79,the General Council of Lateran 
condemned certain of the clergy for preventing lepers 
erecting churches for themselves, notwithstanding they were 
prohibited from entering all other churches ; and a decree 
was passed ordaining, that, wherever a sufficient number of 
lepers were living together, they should be allowed a church, 
a cemetery, and a priest, and should be exempted from 
paying tithes of the fruits of their gardens or of the cattle 
which they fed.f But we must not suppose that the im- 
mense numbers who were admitted into the Lazarettoes 
during the middle ages, were all afflicted with real leprosy, 
since almost every person affected with any severe eruption, 
or ulceration of the skin, was deemed leprous, and received 
into those institutions. " Indeed, there is little doubt, 1 ' 
says Dr. Bateman, " that every species of cachectic disease, 
accompanied with ulceration, gangrene, or any superficial 
derangement, was deemed leprous ; and hence that in the 
dark ages, when the desolation of repeated wars, and the 
imperfect state of agriculture, subjected Europe to almost 
constant scarcity of food, the numerous modifications of 
scurvy and ignis sacer, which were epidemic during periods 
of famine, and endemic wherever there was a local dearth, 
were in all probability classed among the varieties of leprosy ; 
more especially as the last stage of the ignis sacer was 
marked by the occurrence of ulceration and gangrene of the 

■ Bateman's Practical Synopsis of Cutaneous Diseases, pp. 305, 306. 
t Fleury, Histoire Ecclesiastique, Tom. xv, p. 412. Bruxelles, 1715, l2mo. 



108 THE LEPROSY. 

extremities, by which the parts were mutilated or entirely 
separated. 11 * 

On the statutes relating to the leprosy in clothes and 
houses, Michaelis very justly obsery.es, that "when we 
hear of the leprosy of clothes and houses, we must not be 
so simple as to imagine it the very same disease which is 
termed leprosy in man. Men, clothes, and stones have not 
the same sort of diseases ; but the names of human diseases 
are, by analogy, applied to the diseases of other things. In 
Bern, for instance, they speak of the cancer of buildings, 
but then that is not the distemper so called in the human 
body. The cancer of buildings is with equal propriety a 
Swiss, as the leprosy of buildings is a Hebrew expression .""-f 
The house-leprosy (Levit. xiv. S3 — 57) appears to have been 
very similar to those corrosive and destructive effects not 
unfrequently produced in houses placed in unfavourable 
situations by the action of damp and foul air, of which what 
is termed the dry-rot in timber may be adduced as an 
instance. — " Our walls and houses," the preceding writer 
remarks, "are often attacked with something that corrodes 
and consumes them, and which we commonly denominate 
Its appearances are nearly as Moses describes 



* Bateman's Practical Synopsis, p. 308 " Sauvages, under the head of 

Erysipelas pestilens, arranges the fatal epidemic disease, which prevailed 
extensively in the early and dark ages, as the sequel of war and famine, and 
which has received a variety of denominations : such as ignis sacer, ignis Sancti 
Antonii, &c. &c. according to its various modifications and degrees of severity, 
or according to the supposed cause of it. The disease was doubtless the result 
of deficient nourishment — a severe land-scurvy which was a great scourge of 
the ancient world, and often denominated pestilence." — " The name of 
St. Anthony seems to have been first associated with an epidemic disease of 
this kind, which prevailed in Dauphine' about the end of the 12th century. 
An abbey dedicated to that Saint had recently been founded at Vienne, in that 
province — and it was a popular opinion, in that and the succeeding century, 
that all the patients who were conveyed to this abbey were cured in the space 
of seven or nine days." — Ibid. pp. 134, 135. 

-J- Michaelis, ut sup. 



THE LEPROSY. 109 

them. It is most frequently found in cellars, but ascends 
also into the higher parts of the building. — In Bern, Mr. 
Apothecary Andrea heard the people complain of a disease 
that in an especial manner attacked sand-stone, so as to make 
it exfoliate, and become as it were cancerous. They call it 
gall, and, in like manner, ascribe it to the saltpetre contained 
in the stone. It is not, properly speaking, saltpetre that is 
in these walls and buildings, but an acid of nitre, from 
which, by the addition of a fixed alkali, we can make 
saltpetre. The detrimental effects of this efflorescence in 
walls, or, if I may use the common name, of this saltpetre, 
are — the walls become mouldy, and that to such a degree, 
as in consequence of the corrosion spreading farther and 
farther, at last to occasion their tumbling down ; — many 
things that lie near walls affected with saltpetre, thereby 
suffer damage, and are spoiled ; — if the saltpetre be strong 
in those apartments wherein people live, it is pernicious to 
health, particularly where they sleep close to the wall. — The 
consideration of these circumstances will render the Mosaic 
ordinances on this subject easily intelligible. Their object 
was to check the evil in the "very bud ; to extirpate it while 
it was yet extirpable, by making every one, from the loss to 
which it would subject him, careful to prevent his house 
becoming affected with leprosy, which he could easily do, 
where the houses had no damp stone-cellars below ground ; 
and thus also to place not only himself in perfect security, 
but his neighbours also, who might very reasonably dread 
having their houses contaminated by the infection."* — That 
Moses did not design to convey the idea that any leprosy in 
clothes and houses would infect any one, Michaelis thinks, is 
sufficiently proved, by ordering that when a house lay 
under suspicion of leprosy all the articles of furniture should 
be removed out of it, previous to its inspection; for if there 

* Ibid. pp. 293—300. 

H 



110 THE LEPROSY. 

had adhered any poisonous matter to the walls that could 
pass to human beings, this would have been a most 
extraordinary injunction, and the very way to a direct pro- 
pagation of the infection. 

The leprosy of clothes is described in Levit. xiii, 47 — 59, 
as consisting of green or reddish spots that remain in spite 
of washing, &c, and still spread, and by which the cloth be- 
comes fretted and bare. — Dr. A. Clarke supposes that this was 
most probably " occasioned by a species of small animals, 
which we know to be the cause of the itch : these, by breed- 
ing in the garments, must necessarily multiply their kind, 
and fret the garments, i. e. corrode a portion of the finer 
parts, after the manner of mites, for their nourishment. — 
He shall therefore burn that garment: There being scarcely 
any mode of radically curing the infection. It is well known 
that the garments infected by the psora or itch-animal, have 
been known to communicate the disease, even six or seven 
years after the first infection.'"* — The opinion of Michaelis 
is not very dissimilar to that of the learned Doctor ; for 
according to the information he received from an eminent 
woollen manufacturer, the wool of sheep which die by 
disease, and which is technically called dead wool, is apt to 
breed vermin, especially when worn close to the body and 
warmed by it ; he therefore conceives that it was an 
additional proof of the consummate legislative policy of the 
Mosaic institutes, to bring into discredit and disuse stuffs 
already become thread-bare and fretted, and particularly in 
climates which must have been so favourable to the rapid 
multiplication of vermin.-f- — It may perhaps also lead the 
reader to examine the subject still more fully, to remark, 
that it is well known that if cotton or linen cloth be suffered 
to remain long in a damp situation, it assumes an appearance 

* Comment, in loc. 
-j- Michaelis, ut sup. 



THE LEPROSY. Ill 

similar to that described by Moses, and which is usually 
termed mildezo, and is not only difficult fo be removed by 
washing, but also frequently injures the texture of the 
cloth itself, as is frequently experienced to their loss by 
bleachers, in bleaching or whitening cloths of different 
descriptions. 



DISSERTATION VIIL 

ON 

TALISMANS AND TALISMANIC FIGURES. 



nHHE almost universal prevalence of Idolatry in the early 
ages of the world, was accompanied in most countries 
by the dedication of representative images, to the deities 
they worshipped. The sun, and the moon, and the stars, 
the first objects of idolatrous veneration, had their represen- 
tative idols, supposed to be under the special influence of 
the planetary bodies to which they were dedicated, and 
possessing through that influence a prophetic and powerful 
character. — The astronomical pursuits of the Chaldeans, and 
other oriental nations, aided the influence of idolatry, and 
soon introduced the science of Astrology in all its ramifica- 
tions, and induced the construction of horoscopical and talis- 
manical images and figures. Figures of this description are 
termed po (magan) by the Hebrews; — NMaiijf (tzel- 
menia), image or figure by the Chaldeans, Egyptians, 
and Persians ; — tj n if b ft (talizmam) or Q n b if (tzali- 
mam) by the Arabians; — and (rroiyjuc*. (stoikeia) by 
the Greeks. — The Hebrew term Magan, properly signifies 
a paper, or other material, drawn or engraved with 
the letters composing the sacred name Jehovah or with 
other characters, and improperly applied to astrological 
representations, because, like the letters composing the 
Incommunicable Name, they were supposed to serve as a 
buckler or defence against sickness, lightning and tempest.* 

* Gaffarel. Curiositez Inouyes, ch. vi. pp. 106—111, 8vo. 16o0. 



TALISMANS AND TALISMANIC FIGURES. 113 

A Persian writer, quoted by Dr. Hyde, defines the Telesm 
«r Talisman to be " a piece of art compounded of the celes- 
tial powers and elementary bodies, appropriated to certain 
figures and positions, and purposes, and times contrary to 
the usual manner ;" and Maimonides remarks, images or 
idols were called Tzelamim, not from their figure or form, 
but from the power or influence which was supposed to 
reside in them.* 

The first construction of astrological or talismanic images, 
most probably arose from the wish of the idolaters to 
represent the planets during their absence from the horizon, 
that they might at all times have the opportunity of wor- 
shipping either the planetary body itself, or its representa- 
tive. Their astrologers therefore, who appropriated particu- 
lar colours, metals, stones, trees, &c. to the respective 
planets, formed images of such materials as were appro- 
priated to the planets they were designed to represent, and 
constructed them when the planets were in their exaltation, 
and in a happy conjunction with other heavenly bodies ; 
after which, they attempted, by incantatory rites, to inspire 
the fabricated symbols with the power and influence of the 
planets themselves, f- — Manilius, a Latin poet, who lived in 
the reign of Augustus,, wrote an astrological poem, still 
exant, explaining and defending the science and votaries of 
astrology. He supposes Mercurius Trismegistus to have 
been the inventor of Astronomy, and that the science being 
afterwards cultivated by the oriental princes and priests, 
they introduced Astrology as the result and perfection of 
their studies : 



* Maimon. More Nevoch. Part I. c. i, p. 2 Hyde, Syntagma, a Greg. 

.Sharpe, Tom. i. p. 500, Oxon. 1767," 4to. 

t Pocockii Specimen Hist. Arab, note, p. 140.— Hyde, DeVeter. Persar. 
Relig. Cap. v. pp. 126— 134.— Young On Idolatrous Corruptions, vol. i» 
p. 113. 



114 TALISMANS AND 

Such were those wondrous men who first from far 

Look'd up, and saw Fates hanging at each Star : 

Their thoughts extended did at once comprise 

Ten thousand revolutions of the skies ; 

They mark'd the influence, and observ'd the power 

Of every Sign, and every fatal Hour ; 

What Tempers they bestow'd, what Fortunes gave, 

And who was doom'd a King, who born a Slave ; 

How aspects vary, and their change creates, 

Though little, great variety in fates. 

Thus when the Stars their mighty round had run 

And all were fix'd whence first their race begun, 

What hints Experience did to search impart 

They join'd, and Observation grew to Art ; 

Thus rules were fram'd, for by example shown 

They knew what toould 6e, from what had been done ; 

They saw the stars their constant round maintain, 

Perform their course, and then return again ; 

They on their Aspects saw the Fates attend, 

Their change or their Variety depend, 

And thence they fix'd unalterable laws, 

Settling the same effect on the same cause. 

***** 

The God or Reason which the Orbs doth move, 

Makes things below depend on signs above ; 

Though far remov'd, though hid in shades of night, 

And scarce to be descried by their own light ; 

Yet nations own, and men their influence feel ; 

They rule the public and the private Will.* 

Landseer (Sabaean Researches, pp. 54, 60) supposes 
that many of the ancient engraved Babylonian or Chaldean 
Signets, still preserved in the cabinets of the curious, were 
originally designed as horoscopical representations of the 
heavens at the time of the birth of the original possessor, 
though destitute of any astral or magical influence. But 
although Landseer and some others suppose, that the ancient 
Chaldeans or Babylonians attributed no special or amuletic 
influence to these Signets ; it is certain that extraordinary 

• Manilius, B. I. p. 4, and B. II. p. 52, London, 1(507, 8vo. 



TALISMAN IC FIGURES. 115 

power or influence was attributed, generally, to images or 
figures formed or fabricated according to astrological prin- 
ciples. Tradition states that Terah, the father of Abra- 
ham, was a maker of " Talismans, or little images framed 
in some planetary hour ;" and to which were attributed 
certain occult and mysterious influences, as is evidenced by 
the tale connected with this traditon, and frequently related 
by writers on Hebrew Antiquities, from the BeresMth 
Rabba, and other collections of Rabbinical Traditions.* 

* The following is the elegant version of it given by Hurwitz, in his 
interesting collection of Jewish Apologues and " Hebrew Tales:" — 

" Terah, the father of Abraham, was not only an idolater, but a 
manufacturer of idols, which he used to expose for public sale. Being obliged 
one day to go out on particular business, he desired Abraham to superintend 
for him. Abraham obeyed reluctantly. — " What is the price of that god ?," 
asked an old man who had just entered the place of sale, pointing to an idol 
to which he took a fancy. — " Old man," said Abraham, " may I be per- 
mitted to ask thine age!" — "Three-score years," replied the age-stricken 
idolater. — " Three-score years!" exclaimed Abraham, — "and thou wouldest 
worship a thing that has been fashioned by the hands of my father's slaves 
within the 'last four-and-twenty hours! — Strange! that a man of sixty 
should be willing to bow down his grey head to a creature of a day !" — The 
man was overwhelmed with shame, and went away. After this, there came a 
sedate and grave matron, carrying in her hand a large dish with flour. 
"Here," said she, " have I brought an offering to the gods. Place it before 
them, Abraham, and bid them be propitious to me." — " Place it before them 
thyself, foolish woman !," said Abraham : " thou wilt soon see how greedily 
they will devour it." She did so. In the mean time, Abraham took a 
hammer, broke the idols in pieces ; all excepting the largest, in whose hands 
he placed the instrument of destruction. Terah returned, and, with the 
utmost surprise and consternation, beheld the havoc amongst his favourite 
gods. " What is all this, Abraham ? What profane wretch has dared to 
use our gods in this manner?," exclaimed the infatuated and indignant 
Terah. — "Why should I conceal any thing from my father ?," replied the 
pious son. " During thine absence, there came a woman with yonder offering 
to the gods. She placed it before them. The younger gods, who, as may 
well be supposed, had not tasted food for a long time, greedily stretched forth 
their hands, and began to eat before the old god had given them permission. 
Enraged at their boldness, he rose, took the hammer, and punished them for 
their want of respect." — " Dost thou mock me ? Wilt thou deceive thy aged 
father ?," exclaimed Terah, in a vehement rage, — " Do I then not know that 



116 TALISMANS A"N"D 

The learned Gregory supposes, that Telisms or magical 
images owed their origin to the false views entertained by 
the Gentile nations respecting the Brazen Serpent erected in 
the Wilderness : — " The Astrologers," says he, " had per- 
ceived that this God 1 ' (i. e. the God of the Jews) "had 
been pleased with the Brazen Serpent, which Moses the 
Talisman (so they would account him) set up upon a pole in 
the wilderness, (Numbers xxi. 8.,) and I need not stick to 
affirm, that the Brazen Serpent against the Fiery Ser- 
pents was the first occasion (I say not given, but) taken of 
all these Talismanical practices.' 11 * — But whether this erudite 
writer be correct or not in his conjectures, as to the origin of 
Telesms or Talismans, it is certain such images, constructed 
under certain positions of the heavens, were very generally 
wsed amongst the ancient nations, as the means of protec- 
tion and safety, both to cities and persons. The Rabbis 
affirm that the Blind and the Lame mentioned % Sam. v. 
6 — 8, were images written upon with the oath which 
Abraham and Isaac made to Abimelech, and that they 
were called " Blind " and " Lame," because " they had 
eyes and saw not, they had feet and walked not."-f- They 
were, therefore, most probably " Stoichiodee or Constillated 
Images of B?~ass, set up in the recess of the fort, called in 
scorn, (as they were hated by David's soul,) the Blind and 
the Lame ; yet so surely entrusted with the keeping of the 
place, that if they did not hold it out, the Jebusites said 
they should not come into the house, that is, they would 

they can neither eat, nor stir, nor move?" — "And yet," rejoined Abraham, 
" thou payest them divine honours — adorest them — and wouldest have me 
worship them !" It was in vain Abraham thus reasoned with his idolatrous 
parent. Superstition is ever both deaf and blind. His unnatural father 
delivered him over to 'the cruel tribunal of the equally idolatrous Nimrod. 
But a more merciful Father — the gracious and blessed Father of us all — 
protected him against the threatened danger ; and Abraham became the father 
of the faithful." (Hurwitz's Hebrew Tales, p. 139 : London, 1826, 8vo.) 
* Gregory's (John) Works, c. viii. p. 41, London, 1671, 4fo. 
■f Ibid, c. vii. p. 34. 



TALISMANIC FIGURES. 117 

never again commit the safety of the fort to such Palladiums 
as these.""* The images of Emerods and Mice, sent with 
the Ark of Jehovah by the Philistines, (1 Sam. vi. 4, 5, 
11, 17, 18,) appear to have been such Telesms or Talis- 
manic figures, formed according to astrological rules. — 
Gregory details many instances of a similar nature. (Works 
c. vii., viii.) Dr. Adam Clarke observes, " It was 
a very common usage when a plague or other calamity 
infested a country, city, &c, for the magicians to form an 
image of the destroyer, or of the things on which the plague 
particularly rested, in gold, silver, ivory, wax, clay, &c. 
under certain configurations of the heavens ; and to set this 
up in some proper place, that the evils thus represented 
might be driven away. These consecrated images were the 
same that are called Talismans, or rather Telesms, among the 
Asiatics. Mr. Locke" (and he might have added Gregory) 
Sl calls the diviners Talismans ! but this is a pitiful mis- 
take: the image, not thejcibricator, was called by this name. 
— I have seen several of these Talismans of different coun- 
tries ; and such images were probably the origin of all the 
forms of gods, which, in after times, were the objects of 
religious worship. It is well known that Ireland is not 
infected with any venomous creatures ; no serpent of any 
kind is found in it : — 

" No poison there infects, no scaly snake 
Lurks in the grass, nor toad annoys the lake. 

" This has been attributed to a Telesm, formed with certain 
rites, under the sign Scorpio. Such opinions have been 
drawn from very ancient Pagan sources : e. g. — A stone 
engraved with the figure of a Scorpion, while the moon is 
in the sign Scorpio, is said to cure those who are stung by 
this animal. Apollonius Tyaneeus is said to have prevented 
Jlies from infesting Antioch ; and stories from appearing in 



118 TALISMANS AND 

Byzantium, by figures of those animals formed under cer- 
tain constellations. A brazen scorpion, placed on a pillar 
in the city of Antioch, is said to have expelled all such 
animals from that country : and a crocodile of lead is also 
said to have preserved Cairo from the depredations of those 
monsters. Virgil refers to this custom, (Eclogue viii. p. 80,) 
where he represents a person making two images, or 
Telesms, one of wax, another of clay ; which were to 
represent an absent person, who was to be alternately 
softened or hardened as the wax or clay image was exposed 
to the fire. 

" Limus ut hie durescit, et hasc ut cera liquescit 
Una et eodem igni ; sic nostro Daphnis amore. 

" As this clay hardens, and this wax softens, by one and the same fire; 
so may Daphnis, by my love. 

" A beautiful marble figure of Osiris, about four inches 
and a quarter high, now stands before me, all covered over 
with hieroglyphics : he is standing, and holds in each hand 
a scorpion and a snake by the tails, and with each foot he 
stands on the neck of a crocodile. This, I have no doubt, 
was a Telesm, formed under some peculiar configuration of 
the heavens, intended to drive away both scorpions and 
crocodiles. This image is of the highest antiquity, and 
was formed probably long before the Christian aera."* 

" Pliny notices the figures of eagles and beetles carved 
on emeralds, and Marcellus Empiricus the virtue of these 
beetles, especially for diseases of the eye. The most revered 
sort were those made according to the Samothracian mys- 
teries. They were pieces of metal, with certain figures of 
stars, commonly set in rings, but not always. The Ara- 
bians in Spain spread them all over Europe, though the use 

* Clarke's Commentary, 1 Sam. vi. in fine 



TALISMANIC FIGURES. 119 

of them had never become obsolete."* Talismans or Telesms 
have been divided into different kinds or classes, which 
have been thus distinguished by the indefatigable Fosbrooke 
(Encyclop. of Antiq.) — 1. The Astronomical, with celestial 
signs and intelligible characters :— % The Magical, with 
extraordinary figures, superstitious words, and names of 
unknown angels: — 8. The - Mixed, of celestial signs and 
barbarous words, but not superstitious, or with names 
of angels : — 4. Sigilla Planetarum, composed of Hebrew 
numeral letters, used by astrologers and fortune-tellers : — 
5. Hebrew Names and Characters. — Of this last kind were 
those formed according to the Cabalistic art. Such, for 
instance, appears to be the hexagonal one termed the Shield 
of David or Seal of Solomon, (See Frontispiece, fig. 5,) 
which was said to be a security against wounds, would 
extinguish fires, and perform many other wonders ; and by 
which Solomon was said to have accomplished the most 
extraordinary objects. This figure had one or other of the 
names of God, disposed within it according to the principles 
and rules of the Jewish Cabala : the name most frequently 
inserted was the barbarous term Nbjtf (Agla) contracted 
from the Hebrew words — » n « t=>byb 11 j rr n K : " Thou 
art strong in the eternal God. ,1 -f* — According to It. Solomon, 
the Theraphim of the Scriptures were " images which spoke 
by the influence of magical art ; and It. Eliezer, in Perhe 
Eliezer, says, they were statues in the form of a man, con- 
structed under certain constellations, which, from the 
influence they received, spoke at certain hours, giving 
answers to whatever questions were asked ; and adds, that 
the reason why Rachel stole the Theraphim from her father 
Laban was, for fear he should learn from them the route 
of Jacob and his family.^ 

* Fosbrooke' s Encyclopedia of Antiquities, vol. i. p. 336, London, ] 825, 
4to. 

-f- Wagenselii Sota, p. 1074 4to. Altdorf. Noric. 1674.— Enfield's History 
of Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 211, Svo. — Basnage's History of the Jews. 

J Spencer, De Legibus Hebrasorum p. 354 — Gaffarel. Curiositez Inouyes, 
p. 53. 



120 



TALISMANS AND 



It is highly probable, that the prohibitory injunctions of 
the Second Commandment were directed, not only against 
idols or images actually formed in order to be venerated or 
worshipped, but also against all such talismanic figures and 
hieroglyphical characters as might lead the people into 
idolatry in any of its varied forms. — Mictiaelis observes, that 
" in order to preserve their treasures of knowledge, and their 
discoveries in natural science, the Egyptian priests made use 
not of common writing, but of Hieroglyphics. With these 
they inscribed obelisks and walls, even those of subter- 
raneous vaults and galleries ; — and also square stones which 
very much resemble our grave-stones. — With these 
hieroglyphic stones, idolatry was practised. In Egypt they 
were regarded as the god Thoth, the god of sciences ; and, 
as late as the time of Ezekiel, we find an imitation of this 
species of idolatry common among the Jews, and described 
in chap, viii, 8 — 11, of his prophecy. According, therefore, 
to that fundamental principle of the Mosaic polity, which 
dictated the prevention of idolatry, it became absolutely 
necessary to prohibit stones with hieroglyphic inscriptions. 
Besides, in an age, where so great a propensity to super- 
stition prevailed, stones with figures upon them, which the 
people could not understand, would have been a temptation 
to idolatry, even although the Egyptians had not deified 
them as they actually did."* — To these observations we may 
add the remarks of the ingenious Landseer in his " Sabaean 
Researches :" 

" The prime cause," he observes, "of the postdiluvian 
apostacies from the purer deism of Noah and of Job, 
appears to have been the ignorant confounding, by a 
superstitious people, of Signs, with Causes. From this 
source proceeded the idolatry which is at once disclaimed 
and reproved by the latter, in a sublime and often-cited 
text, and which it also appears was in his time and country 

* Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, vol. iv, pp. 55 — 59 



TALISMANIC FIGURES. 



121 



cognisable by the magistracy. ' If, (says the venerable 
sufferer) I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon 
progressive in brightness ; and my heart hath been secretly 
enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand : this (also) 
were an iniquity to be punished by the Judge : for I should 
have denied the God that is above.' (Job xxxi. 26, 27, 
28.) And on account of this prevailing heresy, Moses, — 
expressly prohibited their making unto themselves ' graven 
images,' — the likenesses of things in heaven above, &c. ; 
and this at the very time that Cherubim were permitted, and 
even ordained, to be exhibited in the tabernacle, and on the 
ark of the covenant. Now, to have been made to them- 
selves ; that is, for each man to keep in his possession, 
whilst sojourning in the desert, these prohibited articles 
must have been small, to have been termed likenesses of 
things in heaven above, — objects of worship too ! they must 
— at least, bearing in mind the pervading astronomy of this 
remote period, I find it impossible to come to any other 
conclusion — have borne some real or fancied resemblance 
to planets and constellations; and to have been graven 
images, they must have been sculptured on hard and 
durable substances, and sculptured in intaglio : we should 
recollect too, that such works are, in the Bible, expressly 
and repeatedly distinguished from cast figures, or ' molten 
images,' as well as from such as were overlaid with beaten 
gold: — in short these Chaldean engravings, and the portable 
part of the hieroglyphical engravings of Egypt, are the 
only productions that have descended to our knowledge, 
which at all accord with what is described and prohibited 
in the Second Commandment."* 

Divination by Precious Stones was likewise very exten- 
sively practised, by heathen nations, in almost every part 
of the world. Of this mode of Divination, Warton -f- offers 
the following conjecture as to its origin. " The nations 

* Landseer's Sabsean Researches, pp. 36, 37- 
-j- Warton's Hist, of English Poetry, vol. ii. 4to. 



122 TALISMANS AND 

bordering upon the Jews," says he, "attributed the 
miraculous events of that people, to those external means 
and material instruments, such as symbols, ceremonies, and 
other visible signs or circumstances, which, by God's special 
appointment, under their mysterious dispensation, they 
were directed to use. Among the observations which the 
oriental Gentiles made on the history of the Jews, they found 
that the Divine will was to be known by certain appearances 
in precious stones. The Magi of the East, believing that 
the preternatural discoveries obtained by means of the Urim 
and Thummim, a contexture of gems in the breast-plate of 
the Mosaic priests, were owing to some virtue inherent in 
those stones, adopted the knowledge of the occult properties 
of gems, as a branch of their magical system. Hence it 
became the peculiar profession of one class of their sages, 
to investigate and interpret the various shades and corusca- 
tions, and to explain to a moral purpose, the different 
colours, the dews, clouds and imageries, which gems differ- 
ently exposed to the sun, moon, stars, fire, or air, at particu- 
lar seasons, and inspected by persons particularly qualified, 
were seen to exhibit. This notion being once established, 
a thousand extravagancies rose, of healing diseases, of pro- 
curing victory, and of seeing future events, by means of 
precious stones, and other lucid substances. See Plin. Nat. 
Hist, xxxvii. 9,10. — These superstitions were soon engrafted 
into the Arabian philosophy, from which they were pro- 
pagated all over Europe, and continued to operate, even so 
late as the visionary experiments of Dee and Kelly.* It is 
not in the mean time at all improbable, that the Druidical 
doctrines concerning the virtues of stones were derived from 
these lessons of the Magi ; and they are still to be traced 
among the traditions of the vulgar, in those parts of Britain 

* When king Richard I. in 1191, took the isle of Cyprus, heis said to have 
found the castles filled with rich furniture of gold and silver, " nee non lapidi- 
bus pretiosis, et plurimam virtutem habentibus," and precious stones which 
possessed great virtues G. Vines. Iter. Jlierosol. cap. xli. p. 328. 



TALISMAXIC FIGURES. 123 

aud Ireland, where Druidism retained its latest establish- 
ments. See Martin's West Isles, p. 167, 225 : and Aubrey's 
Miscell. p. 128, London, 8t>o." 

Amulets or Charms, also, were similar in nature to the 
oriental Telesms or Talismans, except that they were not 
always regarded as connected with astral influence. The 
term Amulet was probably derived either from Amula, a 
small vase for containing lustral-waters, among the ancient 
Romans, for purification and expiation, sometimes carried 
in the pocket ; or from amoliri, to remove, from its supposed 
power of removing ox 'preventing evil. The Amulets of the 
Persians or Greeks were small cylinders, ornamented with 
figures and hieroglyphics. The erudite "Sabasan Researches" 
of Landseer exhibit unequivocal proof, that the ancient 
Chaldeans and Zabian idolaters constructed and wore 
astrological cylinders, either as the horoscopes of their birth, 
or as instruments of preservation or prosperity. — The 
Amulets of the Greeks or Romans were gems of almost 
every kind, crowns of pearls, necklaces of shells, gems, coral, 
heads and figures of divinities, heroes, horses, dogs, rats, 
birds, fish, &c. and grotesque and obscene images. These 
they placed around the neck, especially of children, or hung 
them on the jambs of doors, so that, in opening them, they 
caused the amulets to move and ring the bells attached to 
them; in some cases, they were placed at the entry of shops, 
or even of forges. All nations, indeed, have been fond of 
amulets or charms : the Jews were extremely superstitious 
in the use of them to drive away diseases; and the 
Mishna forbids them, unless received from an approved man, 
who had cured, at least, three persons before by the same 
means. — After the Christian era, we hear of charms, made 
of the hair of she-bears, or toys, tied to them, as remedies 
against witchcraft ; parts of St. John's Gospel worn round 
the neck; verses of the Old or New Testaments, put even 
upon horses ; magical characters written upon slips of parch- 



]24 TALISMANS AND 

raent ; remedies wrapped up in scarlet cloth ; ear-rings, and 
common rings made of ostrich's bones. Reginald Scot states, 
that if a Jasper be set in silver, and worn as a ring on the 
finger, its virtues are reported to be great and various, of 
which he gives the following summary, in a quaint transla- 
tion from Marbodeus, by Abraham Fleming. 

Seven kinds and ten of Jasper-stones 

Reported are to be ; 
Of many colours this is known 

Which noted is by me, 
And said in many places of 

The world for to be seen 
Where it is bred ; but yet the best 

Is through the shining green, 
And that which proved is to have 

In it more virtue plac'd ; 
For being born about of such 

As are of living chaste, 
It drives away their Ague fits, 

The Dropsy thirsting dry, 
And put upon a woman weak 

In travail which doth lie, 
It helps, assists, and comforts her 

In pangs, when she doth cry. 
Again it is believ'd to be 

A safeguard frank and free, 
To such as wear and bear the same ; 

And if it hallow'd be, 
It makes the parties gracious, 

And mighty too that have it ; 
And noisome fancies (as they write 

That meant not to deprave it) 
It doth displace out of the mind : 

The force thereof is stronger, 
In Silver if the same be set, 

And will endure the longer. 

In the sixteenth century, we have Amulets worn round 
the neck against pestilence, made of arsenick ; and ware- 
housed in large quantities. One item says, " A hundryth 
wight of amletts for the neke, "xxx 5, iiij"" — The author^of 
the « Vulgar Errors" tells us, that hollow stones, called in 



TALISMANIC FIGUltES. 125 

the North holy stones, are hung up in stables to prevent the 
night-mare, or ephialtes ; and the Rev. Mr. Shaw, in his 
account of Elgin, &c. (See Appendix to Pennants Tour,) 
informs us, that at the full moon in March, they cut withes 
of the misletoe, or ivy, make circles of them, keep them 
all the year, and pretend to cure hectics and other disorders 
by them.* — The reader who wishes to pursue the subject, 
may find ample opportunity in perusing old Reginald Scot's 
rare and curious work, entitled, The Discovery of Witch- 
craft, London, 1665, folio, in which, whilst he acknow- 
ledges the existence of witches and the influence of many 
kinds of divination, of which he gives, what he regards, 
incontrovertible instances, he also endeavours to expose the 
fallacy and fraud in the practices of many pretenders to 
the arts of divination, necromancy, and witchcraft, and 
warns the magistrates to be cautious in receiving the evi- 
dence preferred against persons accused of witchcraft and 
similar arts ; and to exercise mercy in their judicial sen- 
tences. — " Surely their charms" saith he, " can no more 
reach to the hurting or killing of men or women, than their 
imaginations can extend to the stealing and carrying away 
of horses and mares. Neither hath God given remedies to 
sickness or griefs, by words or charms, but by herbs and 
medicines, which He himself hath created upon earth, and 
given men knowledge of the same ; that he might be glori- 
fied for that therewith He doth vouchsafe that the maladies 
of men and cattle should be cured : and if there be no 
affliction nor calamity, but is brought to pass by Him ; then 
let us defy the Devil, renounce all his works, and not so 

* Fosbrooke's Encyclopedia of Antiquities, vol, i. pp. 207, 203, 223. 
■London, 1825, 4to. — Wotton's . Miscellaneous Discourses, relating to the 
Traditions and Usages of the Scribes and Pharisees, &c. vol. ii. p. 49. London, 
1718, 8uo.— Scot's (R.) Discovery of Witchcraft, B. xiii. Chap. vii. p. 16.9.— 
Brand's Observations on Popular Antiquities, Chap. ix. p. 97, and Appendix 
p. 380. London, 1810, 8vo. 

I 



126 TALISMANS AND TALISMANIC FIGURES. 

much as once think or dream upon the supernatural power 
of witches. — Neither," adds he, writing at a period when 
persons suspected of witchcraft were frequently put to 
death, " let us prosecute them with such despight, whom 
our fancy condemneth, and our reason acquitteth : our 
evidence against them consisting in impossibilities, our 
proofs in unwritten verities, and our whole proceedings in 
doubts and difficulties.' 11 (Address to the Readers.) 



DISSERTATION IX. 



JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY 



■& STROLOGY is the science of Planetary Influence, in 
general. Natural Astrology comprehends the 
predicting of natural effects ; as the changes of weather, 
winds, storms, hurricanes, thunder, floods, earthquakes, 
-&c. — Judicial or Judiciary Astrology is that which 
pretends to foretel moral events, or such as have a depend- 
ence on the free-will and agency of man, from the aspects 
and positions of the heavenly bodies. 

Judicial Astrology was probably invented in Chaldaea, 
and thence transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and 
Homans ; though some ascribe it to the Ethiopians, and 
others to the Arabians or Egyptians.* — The professors of 
it maintain, " That the heavens are one great volume or 
book, wherein God has v/ritten the history of the world ; 
and in which every man may read his own fortune, and the 
transactions of his time, — The art, they say, had its rise 
from the same hands as astronomy itself. While the ancient 
Assyrians, whose serene unclouded sky favoured their 
celestial observations, were intent on tracing the paths and 

* Stanley's History of Philosophy : Chaldaick Philosophy, pp. 757, 763, 
374, London, 1743, 4to. — Bergier, Dictionnaire de Theologie, torn. i. p. 282 
— Astrologie Judiciaire, Toulouse. 1819. 8vo. — Young, On Idolatrous 
Corruptions in Religion, vol. ii. p. 135. 



128 JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY. 

periods of the heavenly bodies, they discovered a constant 
settled relation of analogy between them and things below ; 
and hence were led to conclude these were the Parcec, the 
destinies, so much talked of, which preside at our births, 
and dispose of our future fate. The laws, therefore, of 
this relation being ascertained, by a series of observations, 
and the share each planet has therein ; by knowing the 
precise time of any person's nativity, they were enabled, 
from their knowledge in astronomy, to erect a scheme or 
horoscope of the situation of the planets, at that point of 
time : and hence, by considering their degree of power and 
influence, and how each was either strengthened or tempered 
by some other, to compute what must be the result 
thereof.'"* — " The way in which the Chaldeans observed the 
horoscope of any nativity was, that a Chaldean sat in the 
night-time on some high promontory, or lofty observatory, 
contemplating the stars : another sat by the woman till she 
was delivered. As soon as she was delivered, it was signi- 
nied to him who was on the promontory or observatory, 
which as soon as he heard, he observed the sign then rising 
for the horoscope ; but, in the day, he attended to the 
ascendants and sun's motion. ,, f 

Such is Astrology as presented to us by its advocates 
and apologists ; yet with all its lofty pretensions it can 
neither afford certainty to the enquirer, nor happiness to 
the adept. It is erroneous in its principles, and uncertain 
in its data : it affects a knowledge beyond the reach of 
human intellect, assumes positions inconsistent with Revela- 
tion, and infers conclusions contradicted by the common 
experience of mankind. 

1, Astrological investigations proceed upon the possi- 
bility of ascertaining a knowledge of the C07ithigenc : ics of 

* Encyc. Perth. — Astroloyy. 
•\ Stanley's Clialdaick Philosophy, nl sup. p. 77*>. — Landseer's Sabscan 
Researches, p. 54. 



JUDICIAL ASTHOLOGY, 129 

human affairs^ by the study of the aspects and positions of 
the various planetary bodies at certain given periods. — But 
nothing can be more absurd than to suppose, that a know- 
ledge of future contingencies can be obtained by consecutive 
deductions from the appearances of the heavens. For, if 
the fates of men, and the course of mundane affairs, 
invariably accord with the relative positions of the stars, 
either the actions of men must be fixed and necessary and 
consequently not contingent, and the free-agency of man be 
destroyed ; or, which is equally absurd, the planetary system 
must possess omniscience, and, by pretending to the fore- 
knowledge of contingent events, assume the prerogative 
of Deity itself. — " For the foretelling of things to come, 
which in their own nature are contingent, and in regard of 
us casual, is a property peculiar to God alone, and not 
within the power of any creature, man, or angel ; a point 
that is plainly taught by the Prophet Isaiah, from the 
fourth chapter of his Prophecy to the forty-eighth : The 
scope whereof is to prove, that it is a prerogative appropri- 
ated to the Deity, and not communicable to the creature, to 
foreshew the event of things to come, which, in our under- 
standing and reach, may either be or not be ; and which, 
when they are, may be thus or otherwise." 

2. The Data on which astrological calculators found 
their prognostications must necessarily be defective and. 
uncertain, from the want of adequate experience and 
observation. The ever-varying situations of the planetary 
orbs, and the astonishing diversity of human characters and 
constitutions, added to the great mutability of secular con- 
cerns, must, for ever, prevent such a concatenated series 
of comparisons betwixt the aspects of the heavens and 
terrestrial agencies and events, as to justify decisions founded 
on such observations ; or enable an astrological observer to 
state the result of his observations with axiomatic truth and 
precision. For although there may be the same conjunc- 

*%*■ JefylC ?UOlz*r£ i*. **&& tfet ■£<*■< m<X ' t&^Z^ >^2s- 4-6-St*t<*C 



f 






130 JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY. 

tions, the same risings and settings of some of the planetary 
bodies ; yet the influence of innumerable others which are 
constantly varying their positions, with the immense periods 
of time elapsing between important configurations of the 
heavens, added to the unforeseen and powerful influences of 
comets and other erratic bodies of eccentric movement, 
must render it impossible to calculate with exactness the 
amount and tendency of planetary influence for any given 
moment. The attempts to vindicate the art, by appeals to 
occasional instances of seeming accuracy between the pre- 
dictions and the events, merely prove, that, amidst innu- 
merable guesses and conjectural prognostications, fortuitous* 
occurrences have sometimes happened similar to those pre- 
dicted, but too infrequent and casual to establish the truth 
of a system founded on premises so variable and incom- 
petent. It is even possible, that, in some cases, the pre- 
dictions themselves may bring about their own fulfilment : 
for instance, if it be predicted that a man will die at a 
certain time, the very dread of the event may induce 
disease and render it mortal. A singular example is 
related by Michaelis, in which a person was cured of a 
dangerous illness, by Dr. Wadem demonstrating to him the 
inanity of astrological predictions of death. — Many of the 
old divines supposed also, and not without considerable 
probability, that in many cases the co-incidences betwixt 
the prediction and the event arose from diabolical agency. 
. — " For my own part," says Dr. Henry More, " I do not 
much doubt but that Astrology itself is an appendix of the 
the old Pagans' superstition, who were worshippers of the 
host of heaven, and whose priests were confederates^ of the 
Devil ; and therefore it is no wonder if Dsemonolatry creep 
in upon Astrology, and renew their old acquaintance with 
one another : and assuredly it is a pleasant spectacle to those 
airy goblins, those haters and scorners of mankind, to see 
the noble faculties of men debased and entangled in so vile 



JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY. 131 

and wretched a mystery, which will avail nothing to 
Divination, unless these * malicious deceivers 1 act their 
parts in the scene." 

3. The knowledge requisite for the astrological professor, 
in order to enable him to form his horoscopes with infallible 
precision and certainty, even were we to allow the unscrip- 
tural assumption of planetary influence on human life and 
character, is too immense for the grasp of the human intel- 
lect in its present state of limitation and imperfection. — For 
who is capable of calling all the stars by name? — of 
marshalling the myriads of the host of heaven ? — of tracing 
them through the infinite variety of their ever-changing 
positions ? — of marking, without error, their separate or 
combined influences on secular affairs? — of investigating 
with invariable accuracy the capacities of inferior and terres- 
tial objects to receive, or hinder, or change, or pervert the 
character and degree of astral influence, whether from the 
nature of the soil, the differences of climate, the kinds of 
aliment, the constitutions of government, the influence of 
education, the manners of society, or from a thousand other 
similar circumstances ? — Must it not be affirmed?, — " Such 
knowledge is too wonderful for them, it is high, they cannot 
attain unto it. vi — Psalm cxxxix, 6. 

4. The pretensions of astrology, far from being in 
accordance with the doctrines of the Holy Scriptures, are 
directly opposed to their dictates and injunctions. — They 
condemn, in severe and authoritative terms, all attempts to 
pry into futurity by the arts of divination, and subject those 
who practise them to the just judgments of God. — Thus, 
Levit. xix, 26, " Ye shall not use enchantment, nor 
observe times." — Deut. xviii. 10, 11, 12, " There shall not 
be found among you, any one that useth divination, or any 
observer of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, or a charmer, 
or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a necro- 
mancer. For all that do these things are an abomination 
unto the Lord : and because of these abominations the 



132 JUDICIAL ASTKOLOGY. 

Lord thy God doth drive them out from before thee." God 
denounces his judgments against Babylon, by Isaiah xlvii, 
13, 14, " Let now the astrologers, the star-gazers, the 
monthly prognosticators stand up, and save thee from these 
things that shall come upon thee. — Behold, they shall be as 
stubble; the fire shall burn them, they shall not deliver 
themselves from the power of the flame." — And Jeremiah 
addresses his countrymen in the name of Jehovah, saying, 
" Thus saith the Lord, Learn not the way of the heathen, 
and be not dismayed at the signs of heaven ; for the heathen 
are dismayed at them.'" — The Apostle Paul also severely 
reproves the Galatians for their attention to astrological 
practices, and regards their conduct as affording serious 
apprehensions of their declension in religion and apostacy 
from Christianity : — " When ye knew not," says the holy 
writer, " ye did service unto them which by nature are no 
gods : but now, after that ye have known God, or rather are 
known of God, how turn ye again to the weak and beggarly 
elements, whereunto ye desire again to be in bondage? Ye 
observe days, and months, and times, and years. I am 
afraid of you, lest I have bestowed upon you labour in vain." 
—Galatians iv. 8, 9, 10. 

" The true use of the Heavens," says an excellent old 
writer, " consisteth in many points, — First, to declare the 
glory of God. ' The heavens,' 1 saith David, (Psalm xix, 1,) 
' declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth his 
handy-work. 1 — It is an alphabet written in great letters, in 
which is described the majesty of God, and that by these 
four special points, the majesty of the work itself: — the 
infinite multitude of stars : — the wonderful variety of stars : 
> — the greatness of the stars. 

" Secondly, it maketh sinners and wicked men inex- 
cusable before the judgment-seat of God. Rom.i. 20. 

" Thirdly, they serve to the appointing of times, as day, 
night, month, year, which are both measured and described 
by the course of the sun and moon, and other stars ; and so 



JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY, 138 

the feasts of the Israelites, and the computation of the year in 
our church, depend thereupon, and without them there would 
be great confusion both in the commonwealth and church. 
" Fourthly, they serve as signs : — and they are signs 
either of extraordinary things, or things which axe ordinary. 
When they are signs of extraordinary things, then 
there is, and appeareth in them some extraordinary work ; 
as appeareth in the examples which follow : Matt, xxvii, 45. 
The sun was wholly eclipsed, the moon being in the full. 
Ezek.xxxii, 7, 8. — Lastly, the extraordinary going back of the 
sun signified the lengthening of the life of king Hezekiah. 

"The stars are signs of general things which happen 
ordinarily every year in nature among us, as the approach- 
ing and declining of the spring, summer, harvest, winter ; — 
ordinary weather ; — ebbing and flowing of the sea ; — seasons 
of ploughing, sowing, setting, planting, cutting, felling, 
reaping. — I say general, because the particular estate and 
affairs of men can, in no wise, be fore-signified by the stars. 
I say ordinary, because the things which fall out seldom, 
and are beside the common course of nature, as plenty of 
all things, famine, plague, war, &c. do not depend upon the 
stars." 

5. The futility of the conclusions drawn by astrologers 
from the aspects of the heavens, is proved by the con- 
tradictory occurrences of nature and the common events of 
civil society. — St. Augustine, in his book Be Civitate Dei, 
exposes the folly of those who choose particular days for 
agricultural purposes, at the suggestion of astrologers, as if 
the positions of the stars had some special influence upon 
them ; and argues that the supposition is unfounded, for 
when a number of grains of corn are cast into the ground 
together, and are all ripening at one time, yet some of them 
are blasted, some are eaten of birds, some are trodden under- 
foot, and some remain untouched. — So when thousands fall 
in battle, or perish in the sacking of cities ; or when whole 
crews are lost in vessels wrecked or foundering at sea, or the 



134 JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY. 

inhabitants of towns are overwhelmed by some sudden 
destruction, as in the case of Herculaneum or Pompeii, it can- 
not be supposed that all who perish were either born at the 
same time, or under similar configurations of the planetary 
system. — The testimony of other facts is also equally opposed 
to astrological predictions and principles. Forty-seven 
years before the nativity of Christ, there was a conjunction 
of the higher planets in Scorpio, when there was civil war 
between Caesar and Fompey, and a change of empire took 
place in Europe; but according to the rules of astrology, 
all these troubles should have been in Africa, because that is 
said to be under the dominion of Scorpio. In the years of 
our Lord 331, and 1127, there were great conjunctions in 
Virgo, and yet the countries subject to this sign felt no 
baneful influences, whilst Italy and other countries not under 
that sign were agitated by Papal intrigues and religious con- 
tests; — so also in 1576, and 1577, two eclipses of the sun, 
the one in Leo, the other in Capricorn, occurred ; but the 
countries ruled by those signs remained undisturbed by them, 
while Germany, though not under their influence, was the 
seat of trouble and commotion. — Cardan, the famous 
astrologer, tells us, (Comment, in Ptolem. et in lib. Genitur.) 
that he bestowed an hundred hours in calculating the 
nativity of our Edward VI., from which he pretended to 
foretel several sicknesses which would attack him in the 
34th and 55th years of his age, whereas that hopeful prince 
did not outlive his sixteenth year. After the event, Cardan 
endeavoured to vindicate himself, by saying that he had 
omitted something in his calculation, which, if he had gone 
through it, as he might have done in half an hour more, 
would have showed him that the king would be in great 
danger of death in his 16th year. — The same astrologer 
pretended to calculate the nativity of Jesus Christ, and to 
deduce from thence the nature and duration of the Christian 
religion. Others have been guilty of the like presumption ; 
an instance of which may be found in the Works of the 



JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY. 135 

learned Mr. John Gregory, where the reader is presented 
with a scheme of the horoscope, and the calculations of 
Cardan are controverted. It is even asserted, that Cardan, 
having calculated his own nativity, and in what year of his 
age he should die, starved himself to death to verify the 
prediction.* 

Amongst the Romans, Astrologers were termed Geneth- 
liaci from calculating nativities, and Mathematici from 
erecting horoscopes and drawing mathematical diagrams : 
they were also called Apotelesmatici from their study of the 
secret effects and powers of the stars, or, as some have 
thought, from forming little figures and images designed to 
receive the influences of the stars, and used as helps to 
divination. — Severe laws were passed against them, and the 
practice of astrology utterly condemned, by several of the 
Roman emperors ; and afterwards by the Christian bishops 
and councils, who not only censured and anathematized 
those who practised such arts, and forbad them to be 
baptized, [but also enjoined sponsors to guard the children 
for whom they were appointed against observing divination, 
or soothsaying, or wearing amulets or phylacteries (as they 
were frequently called) themselves, or hanging them upon 
others. Tertullian (De Idol. c. 9,) pointedly remarks, — 
" Rome and Italy cast out astrologers as the angels had 
been cast out of heaven : masters and scholars suffer similar 
punishment : 1 ' and Sozomen (lib. iii, c. 6) says, thatEusebius, 
bishop of Emesa, was accused of this art, and forced in con- 
sequence of it to fly from his bishopric : for all such kind of 
divination was looked upon as idolatry and paganism, as 
owing its original to wicked spirits, and as introducing an 

* See Perkins's Works, vol. iii, Discourse of Witchcraft, ch.i, pp. 620—623. 
Resolution to the Country. man ; pp. 655 — 665, Cambridge, 1609, folio. — 
Dr. Henry More's Theological Works, B. vii, chap. 18, 19, 20, London, 1708, 
folio. — Long's Astronomy; Preface, pp. 1, 6, Cambridge, 1742, Ato. — Works 
of the Reverend and Learned Mr. John Gregory, M. A. pp. 146 — 150, London, 
1671, 4<o.— A. Gellii Noctes Atticse, lib. xiv, 1. 



138 



JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY* 



absolute fate and necessity upon human actions, and thereby 
taking away the freedom of the human will, and making 
God the author of sin.* 

But unhappily neither the edicts of emperors, the decrees 
of councils, nor the censures of prelates and divines, have 
ever proved sufficient to extirpate the evil, or produce 
universally a merited detestation of it. — At Rome the people 
were so infatuated with it, that the astrologers maintained 
their ground in opposition to all the attempts to expel them 
from the city. In more modern times, the same superstition 
has retained considerable influence over the minds of many 
persons both in the higher and lower ranks of society in 
different countries. The French historians remark, that 
during the regency of Marie de Medicis no female under- 
took a journey without consulting her favourite astrologer, 
whom she facetiously called son baron ; and that Louis XIII, 
was surnamed the just because he was born under the sign 
Libra or the Balance. They also state that at the birth of 
Louis XIV, his horoscope was drawn with all possible 
gravity and importance. In the reigns of Henry III, and 
IV, of France, astrological predictions were so commonly 
entertained and countenanced by the court, that Barclay,\n 
his celebrated political satire entitled Argesis, successfully 
attacked this predominant humour, on the occasion of an 
astrologer undertaking to instruct the king, Henry III, in 
the event of a war then threatened by the faction of the 
Guises ; and controverted his arguments with a point and 
force of reasoning, that, " if I do not greatly err," says a 
pious and erudite writer, " the whole sombre conclave of 
Star-gazers, Astrologers, and Wizards, from Jannes and 
Jambres, down to Merlin, Nostrodamus, Partridge, and 
Moore, have never yet satisfactorily answered, nor ever will 

* Bingham's Antiquities of the Christian Church, vol. iv. B. xi. ch. 5, 
sect. 8, p. 244 ; and vol. vii. B.xvi, ch 5, pp. 269—275, London, 1715—1720, 
8vo. — Bergier, Diet, de Theologie, torn, i, Astrologic. 



JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY. 137 

be able to refute."* An extract or two from this able satirist, 
in which the reader will find several of the arguments which 
have already been urged against astrology, amplified and 
strengthened, shall conclude this dissertation. 

" You maintain, 1 ' says he, addressing the astrologer, "that 
the circumstances of Life and Death depend on the place and 
influence of the celestial bodies, at the time when the child 
first comes to light; and yet own that the heavens revolve 
with such vast rapidity, that the situation of the stars is con- 
siderably changed in the least point of time. What 
certainty then can there be in your art, unless you suppose 
the midwives constantly careful to observe the clock, that 
the minute of time may be conveyed to the infant, as we do 
his patrimony ? How often must the danger of the mother 
distract the attention of the bystanders ? And how 
frequently does it happen that none of them are concerned 
about these superstitions ? Or if the child be long in the 
birth, how do you then determine the position of the stars ? 
I say nothing of the errors of clocks, arising from the 
humidity or dryness of the atmosphere. — Again, why are 
we to regard the stars, only at his nativity, rather than at 
his first animation, or whilst he remained susceptible of the 
lightest impression ! — But setting this aside, and supposing 
the face of the heavens accurately known : whence arises 
this dominion of the stars over our bodies and minds, that 
they must be the arbiters of our happiness, our manner of 
life and death ? Were all those who went to battle, and 
died together, born under the same position of the heavens? 
And when a ship is to be cast away, shall it admit no 
passengers, but those doomed by the stars to suffer ship- 
wreck ? Or, rather, do not persons born under every planet 
go into battle, or on board the vessel, and, notwithstanding 
the disparity of their birth, perish alike. Again, all born 

* Dr. Adam Clarke, in Armin. Mag. vol. xx,p. 134.— See also Bergier, 
Diet. Theologique, Astres, Astrologie ; and Encyc. Perth. Astrology. 



138 JUDICIAL ASTROLOGY. 

under the same configuration of the stars do not live or die 
in the same manner. Are all monarchs, who were born at 
the same time with the king ? Or are they all even alive 
at this day ? Look at Cleobulus, look at yourself ; were 
all who came into the world with him, as wise and virtuous 
as he ; or all born under your own stars, astrologers like 
you ? If a man be slain by a robber, you will say, he was 
doomed to perish by a robber's hand ; but did the same 
stars, which, when the traveller was born, subjected him to 
the sword of the robber ; did they likewise give the robber, 
who perhaps was born long before, a power and inclination 
to kill him ? For you will allow, that it is as much owing 
to the stars that the one kills, as that the other is killed ; — 
and when a man is overwhelmed by the fall of a house, did 
the walls become faulty, because the stars doomed him to 
die thereby ; or, rather, was not his death owing to this, that 
the walls were faulty ? The same may be said with regard 
to honours and employs; because the stars which shone at 
a man's nativity, promised him preferment, could those have 
an influence over other persons not born under them, by 
whose suffrages he was to rise ? Or, how do the stars at 
one man's birth annul, or set aside, the contrary influences 
of other stars which shone at the birth of another ? 

" The truth is, supposing the reality of all the planetary 
powers : as the sun, which visits an infinity of bodies with 
the same rays, has not the same effect on all ; but some 
things are hardened thereby, as clay, others are softened, as 
wax ; some reeds cherished, others destroyed ; the tender 
herbs scorched up, the others secured by their coarser juice : 
so, where many children are born together, like a field tilled 
so many different ways, according to the various health, 
habitude, and temperament of the parents, the same 
celestial influx must operate differently. If the genius be 
suitable and towardly, it must predominate therein : if con- 
trary, it will only correct it. So that to forctel the life and 
manners of a child, you are not only to look into the 



JUDICIAL ASTKOLOGY, 189 

heavensj but at the parents, the fortune which attended the 
pregnant mother, and a thousand other circumstances 
utterly inaccessible. 

" Further, does the power which portends the new-born 
infant a life, for instance, of forty years ; or perhaps a 
violent death at thirty ; does that power, I say, continue 
and reside in the heavens, waiting the destined time, when, 
descending on earth, it may produce such an effect ? Or, 
is it infused into the infant itself; so that being cherished, 
and gradually growing up with it, it bursts forth at the 
appointed time, and fulfils what the stars had given it in 
charge ? Continue in the heavens it cannot ; for if the fate 
of the infant be derived from a certain configuration of the 
stars taking place at the moment of its birth, then when that 
is changed, the effect connected with it must cease, and a 
new, perhaps a contrary one take place. — What repository 
have you then for the former power to remain in, till the 
time come for its delivery ? If you say, it resides in the 
infant, not to operate upon him till he be grown to manhood ; 
the answer is more preposterous than the former : for this, 
in the instance of a shipwreck, you must suppose, is the 
cause why the winds rise, and the ship is leaky, or why the 
pilot, through ignorance of the place, runs on a shoal or 
rock ; and in like manner that the farmer is the cause 
of the war that impoverishes him, or of the favourable 
season which brings him a plenteous harvest. 

" You boast much of some predictions in which the event 
has answered the prediction, and which you think ought to 
give confidence in your art. But I deny, that, because such 
things have occurred, it is certain that they were the result 
of fate or the influence of the stars. If such coincidences 
have happened, I should attribute them, rather, to God him- 
self, who, to punish you for your impious conduct, brings 
about those events by his own power, which you attribute 
to the stars. Then again, mere accident will account for 
many coincidences ; thus dreams may sometimes give an 



140 JUDICIAL ASTItOLOGY. 

insight into futurity; and a blind man, throwing stones at 
random, may sometimes hit the mark. — So whilst a million 
of deceptions are industriously concealed and forgotten, it 
need not be wondered at if a few prognostications appear, 
occasionally, to be correct. Out of so many conjectures, it 
must be preternatural if some did not hit ; and it is certain, 
that, considering you only as guessers, there is no room to 
boast of your success. Do you know what fate awaits France 
in the present war, and yet are not apprehensive of what 
will befall yourself ? Did you not foresee the opposition 
I should this day make to you ? — If you can say whether 
the king shall vanquish his enemies ; find out first whether 
he will believe you."* 

* Jo. Barclaii Argenis : lib. ii, pp. 186—190, Amstel. 1664, 2imo. 



END OF DISSERTATIONS. 



REASONS 



THE LAWS OF MOSES, 



TRANSLATED FROM THE 



MORE NEVOCHIM" OF MAIMONIDES, 



K 



The numerals which occur in the following pages of the text 
of Maimonides, severally refer to the Notes and Illustrations 
at the close of the Treatise, 



REASONS, &g. 



CHAPTER I. 



Whether the Mosaic Precepts have a discoverable Design, or 
depend solely on the Will of God. 

TT has been a dispute amongst our speculative 
Doctors, (1) whether the works of God be 
the result of his wisdom, or the mere determina- 
tions of an arbitrary will. They have also agi- 
tated a similar question, respecting the precepts 
of the Divine Law : Some of them resolving the 
cause of every precept into the sole determina- 
tion of the divine will ; others assuming, that 
every interdict and precept has its particular 
reason, and proceeds from divine wisdom, — 
and that, although we may be ignorant of many 
of those reasons, and of the ways of divine wis- 
dom, yet we may rest assured that all the pre- 
cepts have their causes, and are enjoined on 
account of their utility. This is the general 
sentiment of our wise men, and is favoured by 
our Law itself, when it says, " Just Statutes 
and Judgments ;" and again, " The Judgments 
of the Lord are true and righteous altoge- 
ther." (2) 

Concerning what are termed " Statutes," 
o'-pn; as the precepts respecting " Garments 
k2 



144 REASONS OF THE 

made of linen and woollen," — " Seething a kid 
in its mother's milk," — " The Scape-Goat," — 
and of which our wise men have said, — " On 
the words which I have commanded thee for 
Statutes, thou art not permitted to think," that 
is, in order to alter or abolish them, " notwith- 
standing Satan may calumniate, and the nations 
of the world oppose them." — Concerning these, 
I say, the major part of our wise men do not 
suppose, that they are enjoined without cause, 
which would reduce them to mere words of 
vanity, but are satisfied that every precept has 
its end and use, though unknown to us from the 
imperfection of our knowledge, and the weak- 
ness of our minds. All the precepts then have 
their end and use. Of some the reason is mani- 
fest and clear, as the prohibition of Murder and 
Theft ; but of others obscure and unknown, as 
the precepts noticed before, and the prohibition 
of " Heterogeneous Mixtures." 

The Precepts, whose design and utility are 
understood, are commonly called " Judgments" 
tznhstyn; and those whose end and design are 
not generally known, are denominated "Statutes" 
tppn. Hence, it is frequently said, "That the 
giving of those precepts is not vain and useless, 
and if it appear so to us, it is because of our igno- 
rance." The proverbial saying is also well 
known, that " Solomon knew all the reasons 
of all the precepts except that of the Red 
Heifer ;" and what is sometimes said, that " God 
has hidden the reasons of some of the precepts, 



LAWS OF MOSES. 145 

lest they should be lightly esteemed by us, as 
was the case with Solomon as to two of them, 
of which the reason was manifest." — The testi- 
mony of the Sacred Books, and the sayings of 
our wise men, are to the same effect. 

Yet I have found one passage amongst the 
writings of our wise men in " Bereschith Rabba," 
(3) from which it would appear at first sight, as 
if they thought that certain precepts had no 
particular reason for their appointment, but 
were only positive commands. They inquire— 
" What does it matter to the Holy and Blessed 
God, whether an animal be slain by cutting its 
throat, or cutting off its head?" and reply, 
*\ The precepts are only given for trial *P V » 
that the creature may be proved or purified by 
them, as it is written, * The Word of the Lord 
is pure or tried, *>py.' It must be acknow- 
ledged, that these words are singular, and 
nothing similar to them to be found in any other 
of their writings ; and even these may be so 
explained, as neither to alter their language, 
nor dissent from the received opinion that all 
the precepts have a present design and use, as 
they say, " The giving of these precepts is not 
a vain thing," &c. ; and as God has said by the 
Prophet, " I said not in vain to the seed of 
Jacob, seek ye me ; I the Lord speak righteous- 
ness, I declare things that are right." Let the 
unprejudiced mind, therefore, candidly receive 
what will now be advanced upon the subject. 
Every precept, generally considered, must of 



146 REASONS OF THE 

necessity have a cause, or reason; but the parts, 
members, and circumstances of it, are those of 
which it is said, " They are only positive pre- 
cepts." For instance, the Slaying of Animals 
for food and support, has a manifest utility; 
but the particular mode of slaughter, as whether 
it shall be by jugulation or decollation, is enjoined 
in order to prove and purify men by obedience, 
and is intimated in the very example they have 
proposed; — an example which I the rather notice 5 
because the phrases of slaughtering " by the 
neck or by the throat," are familiar in their 
sayings. If, however, we strictly investigate 
the matter, we shall be convinced that since 
necessity obliges man to feed upon animals, it 
is right that they should be slaughtered by that 
means that will occasion the least pain. Now 
decollation can only be effected with a sword 
or some similar instrument, but mactation with 
almost any thing ; — and that death might be 
still more speedily produced, it was commanded 
that the knife should be made sharp. (4) 

Oblations may also be very properly adduced 
as exemplifying the reasons for the particular 
circumstances of some of the precepts of the Law. 
For, that the Offering of Sacrifices has its utility 
I shall hereafter explain ; but, that one sacrifice 
should be a Lamb, and another a Ram, and that 
the number of animals to be offered should be 
fixed and definite, no reason can be assigned ; 
and he who should attempt, would act absurdly, 
and only increase difficulties by endeavouring to 



LAWS OF MOSES. 147 

remove Ihem : for both they who believe there 
are reasons for every circumstance of every pre- 
cept, and they who believe there are none for 
any of the precepts, are alike distant from the 
truth. Most assuredly Wisdom, or, if you pre- 
fer the term, Necessity demands the existence of 
some things in the precepts for which no parti- 
cular reason can be given, and without which 
it would be impossible for the Law to be ordained. 
The cause of the impossibility is this, that if it 
should be inquired, " Wherefore ought that sacri- 
fice to be a lamb and not a ram ?" — the same 
question would still remain if a ram had been 
substituted for a lamb ; for after all, some species 
or other must necessarily have been appointed. 
So also if any one should say, " Why must there 
be seven lambs rather than eight ?" — the contrary 
question might be asked, " Why ought there to be 
eight, rather than seven, or ten, or twenty ?" — 
for of necessity some number must be stated. It 
is a point similar to the nature of possibilities, 
of which this is the reason, that there must of 
necessity be another possibility, and of which it 
cannot be sought, " Wherefore is this possible, and 
not the other ?" for the same question might be 
asked if the other were in its place. Let it 
therefore be remembered, that when our wise 
men any where say, that " all the precepts have 
their reasons ;" — and that " Solomon knew all the 
reasons of all the precepts ;" — they are to be 
understood as speaking of the general use or 



148 REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 

design of the precepts, and not of the particular 
parts or circumstances of them. 

These things being understood, I shall pro- 
ceed to distribute all the 613 Precepts (5) into 
certain classes, each of which will include those 
precepts which are of the same nature, or which 
have an affinity with each other ; and endeavour 
to point out the reasons and utility of each class 
in the clearest and most demonstrative manner. 
I shall afterwards revert to each precept of the 
respective classes, and explain the cause of 
every one of them, a few excepted, of the rea- 
sons of which I am not yet certain. I shall also 
note the reasons of some particular circumstances 
of certain of the precepts, for which there 
appears to have been an assignable cause. But, 
first, it will be necessary to premise some things 
in order to clear the way, and to render the 
explanation of those reasons more easy and 
better understood. With these preliminary 
observations I shall commence the ensuing 
chapter 



CHAPTER II. 



The Law has a two-fold Intention ; the Perfection of the Mind 
and the Welfare of the Body. 

^HE general intention of the Law is two-fold, 
viz. — the soundness of the body, and of the 
mind. Soundness of Mind, — that the people, 
according to their capacities, may obtain just 
sentiments of religious matters. On this account 
some things are declared clearly and openly, 
but others in parables, because of the incorrect 
apprehension of the unskilful multitude. Sound- 
ness of Body, — produced by the disposition and 
ordering of the food which ministers to its sup- 
port ; and perfected, first, by the prevention of 
violence, so that no one may do just what he 
pleases, or desires, or it is possible for him to do, 
but that every one may regard the public good ; 
• — and, secondly, by teaching men the virtues 
necessary and useful for the government of the 
commonwealth. 

It must be acknowledged, however, that one 
intention of the Law excels the other, for Sound- 
ness of Mind, which embraces matters of belief, is 
certainly first in dignity, though Soundness in 
Body, as referring to the government of the 
commonwealth and the administration of its 
affairs, is first in nature and time ; — and being 



/ 

150 REASONS OF THE 

necessary first, is therefore, with all its parts, 
treated the most exactly and minutely in the 
Law ; for it is impossible to arrive at the first 
intention without having previously secured the 
second. This is demonstrable, for man is capa- 
ble of a two-fold perfection. The first perfection 
is of the body ;— the second perfection is of the 
mind. 

The first Perfection consists in health, and the 
best bodily dispositions. But this cannot take 
place unless there be at all times a supply of 
necessaries, as food, and other things relating 
to the regimen of the body, as habitations, baths, 
and similar conveniences. Nor can this be 
effected by one man alone ; (for no man's capa- 
city is sufficient for them all ;) but by the poli- 
tical association of a whole region or city, as it 
has been said — " Man is, by nature, a political 
animal." 

The second Perfection is mental, and compre- 
hends the vigorous exercise of the intellectual 
powers, and the knowledge of every thing pos- 
sible to be known by man in his most perfect state. 
This perfection, therefore, includes neither works, 
nor qualities, nor virtues, but those of science, 
the result of observation and diligent inquiry. 
To this last and noblest perfection, it is evident, 
none can arrive, but through the medium of the 
first ; for no man can attain the knowledge of 
all that is possible to be known, even when 
assisted by the instructions of others, and much 
less by himself, whilst he is daily affected and 



LAWS OF MOSS--S. 



151 



depressed by grief, and hunger, and thirst, and 
heat, and cold ; but when he has gained the former 
perfection, he may pursue and obtain the latter: — 
a perfection in every way the most excellent, 
and especially so, because it leads to Life Eter- 
nal. The true Law, I mean the Law of Moses, 
inculcates this two-fold perfection, and even 
indicates that it is the design of the Law to 
lead men to the attainment of them. Thus 
it is said, " And the Lord commanded us to do 
all these statutes, to fear the Lord our God for 
our good always, that he might preserve us alive, ] 
as it is this day ;" where the latter perfection is ( 
placed first because of its dignity and excellence, 
Which is what is intimated by the words, " For ^ 
our good always," agreeably to the expressions < 
of our wise men, who say, " That it may be 
well with thee in that world which is altogether 
good, and always lasting." So, of what is here 
said, " That it may be for our good always," 
the sense is, " That thou mayest arrive at that 
world, which is all goodness and all duration," 
subsisting for ever. — But when it is said, "That 
he might preserve us alive, as it is this day," 
it is to be understood of the first and corporeal 
subsistence, which is only of temporary duration, 
and can only be perfected by the association of 
a whole province or city, as we have already 
shown. 



CHAPTER III. 



The Mosaic Precepts are rational, tending either to the Well- 
being of the Soul or of the Body. 

r j^HE Law designs the final perfection of man, 
it therefore commands us to believe in the 
existence and unity of God, and in his know- 
ledge, power, will and eternity, which are all 
final ends, and can only be attained by various 
previous knowledge. It also enjoins the belief of 
certain principles necessary to the welfare of 
civil and political institutions, as " that God is 
angry with the wicked," and therefore ought to 
be feared, and wickedness cautiously avoided. 
But of other speculations or realities, as for 
instance, those reasonings by which the opinions 
constituting the final end are verified, the Law 
commands nothing expressly but only generally, 
as when it says, u Thou shalt love the Lord." — 
But how strenuously this duty is enjoined, is evi- 
dent from its being added, " Thou shalt love 
Him with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, 
and with all thy strength." In our Talmudical 
work we have shown that no love to God 
is rightly established, but that which is founded 
on a clear and extensive view of the Divine 
Existence and Perfections. 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 153 

The sum of this reasoning is, that every pre- 
cept of the Law, whether affirmative or negative 
is intended, first, to prevent the exercise of vio- 
lence, and encourage those virtuous habits which 
are necessary to the existence and preservation 
of Political Society ; and, then, to inculcate just 
notions of those things which are to be believed, 
especially such as are useful in the prevention of 
violence, and the promotion of virtue. Of such 
precepts it may be safely affirmed, that the 
reason and utility of them are manifest, and that 
there can be no doubt of their final design; 
for no one can doubt or inquire, why we are 
commanded to believe the Unity of God; or 
why murder, theft, or revenge are forbidden ; 
or why we are commanded to love one another. 
But those which perplex the mind, and about 
which men dispute, — some asserting that they have 
no particular utility, but are mere positive com- 
mands, — and others that they have an utility, 
though not always discovered by us, — are those 
which do not appear on the face of them to have 
any direct relation, either to the prevention of 
vice, or the promotion of virtue, or the inculca- 
tion of truth, and consequently affording no 
assistance to the well-being of the mind, by 
instruction in matters of faith, nor to the well- 
being of the body, by instruction in the science 
of Political or General Economy ; such are, for 
instance, those precepts relating to mixed gar- 
ments of linen and woollen ; to divers seeds ; 
to seething a kid in its mother's milk ; to cover- 



154 REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 

ing blood ; to the decollation of the calf ; to the 
redemption of the first-born of the ass ; and other 
similar injunctions. The true reasons, however, 
of these and many other precepts of like nature, 
I will develope, by demonstrating, that, with the 
exception of some particular circumstances, and 
a few precepts not understood by us at present, 
they are all necessary either to the welfare of 
the Soul or Body; the latter especially being 
produced by the prevention of lawless violence, 
and the formation of virtuous habits. But let 
not what we have already said respecting the 
dogmas of faith be forgotten, — that sometimes a 
precept solely regards an article of belief, and 
has no other reference, as in the case of the 
precepts respecting the Unity, Eternity, and 
Spirituality of God ; but that at other times, the 
precept is to be believed in order to banish vice 
and encourage virtue ; as when it is declared, 
that God is angry with the man who injures 
another ; as it is said, My wrath shall wax hot, 
and I will kill you with the sword ; and again, 
that God will speedily hear the cry of the 
oppressed and afflicted. 



CHAPTER IV. 



Abraham imprisoned and exiled for combating the Errors of 
the Zabii. — Zabian Idolatries and Fables. 



A BRAHAM, our father, was, as is well known, 
educated in the faith of the Zabii, (5) who 
maintain, that there is no God but the stars, as 
their books and ancient annals translated into 
the Arabic, and yet extant among us, undeniably 
prove. In them, they expressly affirm, that 
the stars are Divinities, (Dm minorum Gen- 
tium,) and the Sun, the chief Deity. They also 
write, that the five planets are gods, but the 
two great luminaries, superior ones ; and add, 
that the sun governs both the upper and lower 
worlds. The before-mentioned books and 
annals, relate also concerning Abraham, that 
being educated in Cutha, (6) but dissenting 
from the common opinions, and affirming that 
there was another Creator beside the sun, they 
began to object first one thing and then another 
to him, alleging, amongst other objections, the 
evident and manifest influence of the sun in the 
world. Abraham replied, " Ye are right, and 
have spoken well, for the sun is like the axe in 
the hand of one who is felling trees,' ? Certain 



156 REASONS OF THE 

arguments are then stated as having been urged 
by Abraham, after which it is related, that the 
king imprisoned him, but that even in prison 
he continued his opposition to their errors. The 
king fearing, therefore, lest his kingdom should 
sustain injury, and his subjects be seduced from 
their religion, confiscated his goods, and banished 
him to the most distant countries of the east. 
The whole relation is delivered at large in the 
book which is entitled, rptosan rrYisim, (of the wor- 
ship of the Nahathasans^) (7) but no mention 
whatever is made of what is written in our Can- 
onical Books, nor of the gift of Prophecy 
which was conferred upon him ; for they 
endeavoured to refute and discredit him, because 
he contradicted their impious opinions. (8) Nor 
can it be doubted, but that men who were thus 
involved in error, would be violently irritated 
by the firmness with which he combated their 
sentiments, and would load him with every 
species of contumely and reproach. But, as 
was his duty, he bore their injuries with patience 
for the glory of God, and, therefore, it was 
promised to him, " I will bless them that bless 
thee, and curse them that curse thee" — A pro- 
mise, the accomplishment of which is seen, in 
our days, since all men admire him, and even 
those who are not of his seed are blessed in him. 
Nor are there any to be found of a different 
opinion respecting him, or who are ignorant of 
his superiority and excellence, except some des- 



LAWS OF MOSES. 157 

eendants of the Zabii still remaining in distant 
parts of the world. 

In the time of Abraham, the utmost to which 
philosophers carried their speculations, was, to 
esteem God to be the Spirit of the sphere, or 
celestial orb ; (9) supposing the celestial orbs 
and planets to be bodies, and the Supreme 
Being the soul or spirit of them. Abubachar 
Alsatg notices this opinion of theirs, in his Com- 
mentary on Aristot. de Audiiu, The Zabii, con- 
sequently, held the eternity of the world. (10) 
They moreover maintained, that the first man, 
Adam, was, like others, the offspring of a man 
and woman, though they greatly extolled him, 
calling him the Prophet of the Moon, and assert- 
ing that he taught men to worship the Moon, 
and composed certain works on agriculture. (11) 
Tliey also affirmed, that Noah was an husband- 
man, but worshipped no sort of images ; on 
which account they censure him, and tell us that 
because he would worship only the Supreme 
Being, and for other things of a similar nature, 
he was thrown into prison ; — and add, that Seth 
also dissented from Adam his father, as to the 
worship of the moon. — In a word, they advance 
so many falsehoods, that they only serve to 
excite ridicule, and show the imbecility of their 
minds, and their total ignorance of true philoso- 
phy. — Thus, they say of Adam, that when he 
quitted the country adjacent to India, for the 
confines of Babel, he carried with him many 
wonderful things : Amongst which were, one 
L 



158 REASONS OF THE 

tree whose branches, leaves, and flowers were all 
of gold, and another all of stone ; and also, two 
of the leaves of a third tree, so verdant that the 
fire could not consume its leaves, and so large 
as to cover ten thousand men of equal stature 
with Adam ; for that even one of the leaves he 
carried with him, would have been large enough 
to have covered or clothed two men. These, 
and many other similar things, do they relate ; so 
that I am not astonished that they should believe 
the eternity of the world, when they can give 
credit to such impossibilities in nature. The fact 
is, that such relations are designed only to sup- 
port the idea of the eternity of the world, and the 
divinity of the Heavenly Bodies. But when Abra- 
ham, that Pillar of the world, had gone forth, 
and learned that God is abstract and spiritual, 
and that all the stars and planetary worlds are 
his works, and had understood the falsehood of 
those vanities in which he had been educated ; 
he then began to oppose and refute them pub- 
licly, and by invoking the Name of Jehovah the 
Everlasting God, openly declared, that He was 
God, and had created all things. 

To return. The Zabii, agreeably to the sen- 
timents adopted by them, erected images to the 
stars ; to the Sun images of gold, but to the 
Moon images of silver. They also distributed 
the metals, and the climates of the earth amongst 
the stars, adjudging a certain climate to a cer- 
tain star. Afterwards they built chapels, and 
placed the images in them, believing, that the 



LAWS OF MOSES. 159 

power of the stars flowed into them ; that they 
possessed intelligence; bestowed the gift of 
prophecy upon men ; and indicated to them 
what things were useful and salutary. They 
also affirmed the same concerning those trees 
that were consecrated to certain stars. When 
a tree was dedicated to a star, it was planted 
in its name, and worshipped after a prescribed 
form, in order that the stars might communi- 
cate spiritual powers to it, so that it might be 
able to prophesy according to the usual mode 
of prophecy, and «ven advise men in their sleep. 
— All these things may be met with in those 
books of the Zabii, which have been already 
mentioned. These are the Prophets of Baal, and 
the Prophets of the Groves, noticed in the Sacred 
Books, in whose minds these opinions were so 
deeply rooted, that they forsook the Lord, and 
cried, " O ! Baal, hear us !" For through the 
profound ignorance and madness then reigning 
in the world, the Zabian errors were universally 
propagated, and their baneful influence diffused 
on every side. From them sprang Augurs, 
Diviners, Sorcerers, Enchanters, Magicians, 
Wizards, and Necromancers. (12) Concerning 
this people, we have already shown in our Great 
Talmudical Work, that Abraham our Father 
endeavoured by argument to refute their opinions, 
and by gentle and persuasive methods to draw 
them to the worship of the True God, until 
at length the Prince of Prophets arose, and 
completely effected the design, ordaining that 
l2 



160 REASONS OF THE 

such persons should be punished with death, 
their memory be blotted out, and extirpated 
from the land of the living. u Ye shall destroy 
their altars, and break down their images, and 
cut down their groves, and burn their graven 
images with fire." (Deut. vii. 5.) He also so- 
lemnly interdicted the imitation of their customs 
and practices ; u Ye shall not walk in the man- 
ners of the nation which I cast out before you." 
(Levit. xx. 23.) For it is clearly evident from 
many parts of the Scriptures, that the first inten- 
tion of our Law was, to eradicate idolatry, and to 
obliterate the memory of it, and of those who 
were addicted to it ; to banish every thing that 
might lead men to practise it, as Pythons, Sooth- 
sayers, Passers through the fire, Diviners, Jug- 
glers, Enchanters, Augurs, Astrologers, Necro- 
mancers, &c. ; and finally, to prevent the most 
distant assimilation to their practices, and still 
more so to adopting and practising them. 
Hence, it is expressly declared in the Law, that 
as the worship paid to an idol, is an abomination 
to the Lord, so is the oblation offered to it ; 
for this is what is designed when it is said, 
" Every abomination to the Lord, which he 
hateth, have they done unto their gods." (Deut. 
xii. 31.) 

In the books of the Zabii, it will be found 
related, that they offered to the Sun, (their great 
god,) seven bats, seven mice, and seven reptiles, 
together with certain other matters ; which is, of 
itself, sufficient to prove the abominable nature of 
their superstitions. 



LAWS OF MOSES. 161 

It is, therefore, manifest, that all those pre- 
cepts and interdictions which forbid idolatry, 
and prohibit whatever is connected with it or 
might produce attachment or tendency to it, 
possess the highest utility ; because they deliver 
us from those pestiferous opinions which are 
inimical to the perfection of both body and mind, 
and would throw us back into those insanities? 
in which our forefathers and elders were edu- 
cated, as it is said, " Your fathers dwelt on the 
other side of the flood in old time, even Terah 
the father of Abraham, and the father of Nachor ; 
and they served other gods." (Joshua xxiv. 2.) 
And as the Prophets truly affirmed, u They 
walked after vain things, which could neither 
profit, nor deliver." How great therefore, is 
the benefit of all those precepts, which thus 
deliver us from so great errors, and lead us to 
faith in the One True God ! Teaching us that 
God, who created all things, is ever present in 
the world ; that he alone is to be worshipped, 
loved, and feared; and that to fulfil his will, 
nothing difficult or laborious is required, but only 
to love and fear him, since by these two things, 
his whole worship is perfected, as we shall after- 
wards demonstrate. Hence, it is written, " And 
now, Israel, what doth the Lord thy God re- 
quire of thee, but to fear the Lord thy God, to 
walk in all his ways, and to love him, and to 
serve the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and 
with all thy soul?" (Deut. x. 12.)— But leaving 
this to future discussion, I return to my for- 



162 REASONS OF THE 

mer proposition, and proceed to observe, that 
from an acquaintance with the faith, and rites, 
and worship of the Zabii, I have gained much 
insight into the reasons and causes of many of 
our laws, as will readily be discovered, when I 
come to treat of those precepts which at first 
seem destitute of any reason or utility. 

Adverting now to those books of the Zabii, 
from which a more extensive knowledge may be 
gained of their faith and worship, and which 
will serve to corroborate what I advance in illus- 
tration of many of the precepts of the Law, 
we may first notice, as the most celebrated, 
rrtonan irmjm Of the Agriculture of the Naba- 
theans, (translated into Arabic, by Aben Vachas- 
chijah.) (13) In the following chapter, I shall 
explain the reason why the Zabii treated of 
their faith, under the name of Agriculture ; 
and therefore shall, at present, only offer a 
few general remarks upon the work itself. 
This book is full of idolatrous ravings, and other 
things to which men are but too readily inclined ; 
as of the Fabrication of Speaking Images: of 
Familiar Spirits : of Juggling : of Demons : of 
the Devil : of such as dwell in Deserts, as 
Satyrs; beside many other ridiculous subjects, 
subtilly designed to oppose and invalidate the 
public miracles wrought by Moses and the Pro- 
phets, by which God was universally made 
known to be the Judge of all men, as it is 
written, " That thou may est know that the 
Earth is the Lord's," &c. — and again, " I am 



LAWS OF MOSES. 163 

the Lord in the midst of the earth." It is there 
said of Adam, that in the book written by him, 
he relates that there is a certain tree in India, 
whose branches when thrown upon the ground 
creep like a serpent ; — that there is another tree 
whose root has a human shape, and a strong 
voice, uttering distinct sounds, and speaking ; — 
and that there also is a certain herb, which, if 
taken and suspended round the neck, renders 
the wearer invisible, so that none can see from 
whence he comes, nor whither he goes; and 
further adds, that if it be burned in the open air, 
the smoke no sooner begins to ascend, than the 
most tremendous noises and thunderings are 
heard in the surrounding heavens. But not 
only these, but many similar fooleries, do they 
relate respecting the wonderful virtues of plants, 
and the properties of agriculture, endeavouring 
by them to overturn the true miracles, and per- 
suade men that they were merely the effect of 
skill and industry. Amongst the relations, is 
that of the tree »ii>»» {Amloi^) one of the 
asheroth, i. e. groves, or trees planted in honour 
of the gods, (14) which, as has been shown, 
was practised among them. Of this tree, they 
affirm, that it had stood in Nineveh twelve 
thousand years ; — that afterwards it had a dis- 
pute with the nils* (Jabruach) or Mandrake, 
which desired to usurp its place ; — and that a 
certain man who had prophesied by its influence, 
but had been for a while deprived of his ability 
to prophesy; being again urged by its pro- 



164 



REASONS OF THE 



phetic impulse, received information that it had 
been engaged in the dispute with the Jabmiach, 
and was commanded to write to all Judges to 
determine the dispute, and decide which of them 
possessed the greater power of working won- 
ders \ — Such is the outline of this prolix fable ;, 
but it is sufficient to teach us the opinions and 
wisdom of these men. Yet these were the wise 
men of Babel, who in those days of darkness 
were held in great estimation ; and since the 
people were educated in the belief of these 
things, had it not been for the promulgation of the 
knowledge of the existence of God, the Gentile 
nations would even now have been involved in 
the most deplorable ignorance. (15) 

But to resume our former subject. The book 
already referred to, narrates a fable of a certain 
idolatrous false Prophet whose name was Tham- 
mifz, and relates of him, that having called upon 
the king to worship the seven planets, and the 
twelve signs of the zodiac, he was ignominiously 
put to death by him ; — and that on the same night 
on which he was slain, all the images from the very 
ends of the earth assembled in the palace, which 
had been erected for the Great Golden Image, 
the Image of the Sun, which was suspended in 
the air ; — that the Image of the Sun dropped into 
the midst of them, and weeping and mourning 
the loss of Thammuz, related what had happened 
to him, which caused a general lamentation and 
weeping of the rest of the images during the 
whole night ; — but that as soon as the morning 



LAWS OF MOSES. 165 

dawned, they all flew away, and returned to 
their respective temples in the most distant 
regions. Such was the origin of the custom of 
weeping and mourning for Thammuz, (the false 
Prophet,) on the first day of the month Tham- 
muz, (i. e. June.) (16) Such were, therefore, the 
opinions entertained at that day. It is true, the 
history of Thammuz professes to be of the most 
remote antiquity ; and yet from this book much 
may be learned of the ravings, and practices, 
and festivals of the Zabii. Care, however, 
should be taken, to guard against their stories 
of Adam, of the Serpent, of the Tree of Know- 
ledge of good and evil, and of Vestments, lest by 
their novelty they should deceive the understand- 
ing and lead men to suppose, that such things as 
they relate have really occurred, when the fact is, 
that such things never did and never could exist. 
Indeed the slightest and most superficial consi- 
deration of the subject will be sufficient to con- 
vince any one, that these relations are false, and 
were forged after our Law was known amongst 
the Gentiles, and they had heard the history of 
the work of Creation. For receiving every 
thing in a literal sense, they framed these fables 
accordingly, and accommodated them to what 
was related in the Law, that they might persuade 
the simple and illiterate, that the world was 
eternal, and that what is related in the Law, 
was effected in the way they describe. And 
although some to whom I address myself may have 
no need of these precautions, because they are 



16G REASONS OF THE 

already in possession of such knowledge as will 
prevent the mind from adopting the reveries of 
the Chaldeans, Astrologers, and Zabii, who were 
destitute of all true wisdom ; I am, neverthe- 
less, willing to note what is necessary for the 
preservation of others from a belief of those 
fables, to which the vulgar are but too apt to 
give credit. 

Beside the Zabian books already noticed, there 
are also The Book Haistamchus, falsely ascribed 
to Aristotle : The Book Hattelesmaoth, (i. e. of 
Talismans, or speaking Images:) (17) The 
Book Tamtam: The Book Hasharab : The 
Book Maaloth haggalgal vehazzuroth haoloth becol 
maaleh, (i. e. Of the Degrees of the Celestial orbs 
and of the figures that are ascendent in every 
degree :) another Book, Concerning Talismans, or 
Speaking Images, attributed to Aristotle : A Book 
ascribed to Hermes : A Book of Isaac the Zabian, 
in which he defends the Laws of the Zabii : also, 
a large Book, Of the Customs and Particularities 
of the Law of the Zabii, as their Feasts, Sacrifices, 
Prayers, and other things concerning their 
Faith. All these are works treating of the 
affairs of the idolaters, and have been trans- 
lated into the Arabic tongue ; though doubtless 
but a small number in comparison of those that 
either have not been translated, or have perished 
through length of time. But even those which 
are still extant, include a considerable part of 
the opinions and practices of the Zabii, (some 
of which are known and practised at the present 



LAWS OF MOSES. 167 

day,) as the erection of temples, and sometimes 
placing in them images of metal or stone ; the 
construction of altars, and offering sacrifices 
and oblations of various kinds of food upon them ; 
the celebration of festivals; the assembling of 
the people to prayers and other parts of wor- 
ship in their temples ; in which they also con- 
structed stately monuments, calling them the 
Temples of Intellectual Forms ; the setting up 
of images on high mountains; their reverence 
for groves or trees 5 the erection of statues ; and 
various other things, of which the books already 
noticed will furnish information. An intimate 
knowledge of their opinions and practices, will 
therefore open the door to an acquaintance 
with the Reasons of the different Precepts of 
the Law ; for the very foundation and hinge 
on which our whole Law turns, is, that it 
is designed to eradicate from the heart, and 
obliterate from the memory, every root and 
trace of their opinions ; as it is said, " That your 
heart be not deceived, and turn aside, and serve 
other gods, and worship them." (Deut. xi. 16.) 
And also, " Lest there should be amongst you 
man, or woman, or family, or tribe, whose heart 
turneth away this day from the Lord our God, 
to go and serve the gods of these nations." (Deut. 
xxix. 18.) And again, " Ye shall overthrow 
their altars, and break their pillars, and burn 
their groves with fire, and you shall hew down 
the graven images of their gods, and destroy the 
names of them out of that place." (Deut. xii. 3.) 



168 REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 

In short, every part of the Law presents us 
with the repetition and enforcement of these 
irjuncthps. Our Sages also teach us, that this 
is its first and principal design. Thus, in their 
exposition of what God hath said in those words, 
" Whatsoever t<ie Lord commands you by the 
hand of Moses," they write, " Behold ! from 
hence thou mayest learn, that whosoever 
embraces idolatry is considered as having 
renounced the whole Law ; and that whosoever 
renounces idolatry, is regarded as receiving the 
whole Law." 



CHAPTER V. 



Why the ancient Idolaters united Agriculture with the Worship 
of the Stars, 

^TTHE reasons of the union of Agriculture with 
the worship of the stars, are sufficiently evi- 
dent from those vain and foolish opinions, which 
have been avowed by the ancient idolaters them- 
selves, since they confessedly believed that the 
fruitfulness of the earth depended upon the wor- 
ship of the planets and other heavenly bodies. 
(18) Their Sages, Doctors, and Prophets 
accordingly taught, and endeavoured to prove to 
the people, that Agriculture, without which 
men cannot subsist, depended upon the influence 
of the Sun, and the rest of the Stars, for its 
success ; and that they must therefore be wor- 
shipped, since, if they were displeased, the cities 
and fields would be wasted and destroyed. In 
their books they write, that, by the anger of 
Mars, places are rendered desert and desolate, 
and become destitute of water and trees, and 
inhabited by horrible daemons ; — and loudly extol 
Husbandmen and Vine-dressers, who are engaged 
in cultivating the earth and rendering it habi- 
table, as entertaining the highest affection and 
devotion for the Heavenly Bodies. 

These Idolaters, also, greatly valued oxen and 
cattle, and the reason they did so, was, because 



170 REASONS OF THE 

of their usefulness in husbandry ; and hence they 
affirmed it was unlawful to slay them, since 
they were not only of use in cultivating the 
ground, but were by the influence of the stars 
the means of rendering it fruitful ; and that they 
were subjected to men, because the Deity was 
pleased with their being employed for agricul- 
tural purposes. Such being the opinions univer- 
sally prevalent, the worship of idols was readily 
joined with the culture of the earth, Agriculture 
being necessary to both men and animals. 

These sentiments gained additional strength 
also, from the public discourses of the Idol- 
Priests, (19) who, in their congregations and 
assemblies, impressed the minds of the people 
with the belief, that, by this kind of worship, rain 
was obtained from heaven, the trees of the field 
were rendered fruitful, and the earth was caused 
to produce plentiful harvests. Read what they 
themselves say in the book i( Of the Agriculture 
of the Egyptians ;" where, when speaking of 
Vines, they explicitly state their sentiments, 
and tell us, that their Sages and Prophets for- 
merly commanded, that, on their Festival-Days, 
they should play on certain instruments in the 
presence of the Idols, for that the gods would 
confer benefits and ample remunerations on 
those who should act in this manner. They 
even point out the nature of several of these 
advantages, as, that they shall be favoured with 
long life ; — be preserved from sickness, and be 
shielded from misfortunes ; — that the earth shall 



LAWS OF MOSES. 171 

yield its increase, and the trees bring forth fruit 
in abundance. Such is the language of the 
Zabii. When, therefore, these opinions began 
to be entertained and promulgated, it pleased 
the Ever Blessed God, in his great mercy to- 
wards us, in order to eradicate those errors from 
our minds, and to deliver us from those toilsome 
and useless services, (20) to give us his Law, by 
the hand of Moses, of blessed memory, who 
declared to us, in the name of God, that if we 
worshipped the stars and the other heavenly 
bodies, the rain would be withheld, the earth 
become barren and unfruitful, the trees cease to 
yield their fruit, various temporal evils and 
diseases befal us, and lastly, life itself be cut 
short. For all these declarations are in the 
Covenant which God made with us, and are to 
be found in every part of the Law, where it is 
again and again stated, that, from the worship of 
the stars, follows the withholding of rain ; the 
laying waste of the earth ; general depravity ; 
bodily diseases, and brevity of life ; but on the 
contrary, that the relinquishment of idolatry, and 
conversion to the true God, is succeeded by the 
descent of rain, the fertility of the earth, general 
prosperity, bodily health and long life, the very 
contrary to what the Idol-worshippers taught, 
in order to induce men to embrace idolatry. 
For the chief design of the Law, and what may 
be regarded as its foundation, is that it is in- 
tended to extirpate those opinions, and totally 
destroy the remembrance of them. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Reply to those who suppose that no Reasons can be assigned for the 
Precepts of the Law. 

r j^HERE are some men to whom it is con- 
fessedly difficult to assign a reason for any 
of the Precepts, and to whom therefore it would 
appear, as if no intelligible reason could be given 
for any Injunction or Prohibition ; whereas, the 
true cause is to be found in the diseased state of 
their own minds. For they suppose, that if any 
arguments be advanced, which are deduced from 
the advantages derivable from the Precepts in 
this world, it is depreciating them as the result 
of mere human reason and sagacity ; but that if 
no present advantage or utility be discoverable 
in them, or can be assigned for them, it is a 
proof that they are derived from God, since 
they are incomprehensible by the human mind. 
But how foolish is this mode of reasoning, which 
supposes man to be more perfect than his 
Creator! According to them, man acts with 
design in all he does and says, but that God 
commands u.: to do those things, from the per- 
formance of which we shall derive no benefit, 
and by the neglect of which we shall sustain 
no injury. Far, indeed, be this from the 
Creator ! who has himself intimated to us, that 
the design of all the Precepts is to promote 
our happiness ; as is expressed in these words 



LAWS OF MOSES. 173 

already quoted : " For our good always, that) 
he might preserve us alive, as it is at this day."/ 
(Deut. vi. 24.) In this sense also it is said, 
u This is your wisdom and understanding in the 
sight of the nations which shall hear all these; 
things." (Deut. iv. 6.) And again, " Surely 1 
this great nation is a wise and understanding 
people." (Deut. iv. 6.) For these words show,/ 
that all nations will understand these statutes 
to be replete with the highest wisdom and 
intelligence. But if the causes of them were ( 
hidden, and no utility could be discovered in 
them, either for producing good or averting 
evil, wherefore should it be said of those who 
receive and practise them, that they are wise, 
and intelligent ; or that they are great, and 
the admiration of all nations ? Assuredly, it 
must be because, as we have asserted, every 
one of the six hundred and thirteen, Precepts, 
^21) is in some way or other advantageous, 
either by inducing the belief of some salutary 
principle, or eradicating some pernicious notion ; 
by instituting some profitable regulation, or 
banishing some vice; or, lastly, by exciting to 
worthy and laudable actions, or dehorting from 
sinful and vicious ones ; all of which may be 
referred to the three divisions of Faith, Mo- 
rals, and Civil Polity. But as all the Injunc- 
tions or Prohibitions of the Law include either 
instructions respecting civil or political actions, 
or morals, or truths to be believed, there is no 
need at present to discuss them separately. 
M 



CHAPTER VII. 



As all the natural Works of God have iheir respective Causes and 
Reasons, so also have the Precepts of the Law. — The Origin of 
Oblations. 

TF we study the works of God in nature, we 
shall soon discover the supreme wisdom and 
skill of the Creator displaying itself in the crea- 
tion of inferior animals ; and in the subordina- 
tion and connexion of the various motions of 
their members. Similar wisdom and contrivance 
are also exhibited in the formation of the differ- 
ent parts of the human body ; thus, for instance, 
the anterior portion of the brain is extremely 
soft, but the posterior portion somewhat more 
solid ; the spinal marrow is still harder, and the 
more extended its elongation, the firmer is its 
consistency. The nerves are the instruments of 
sense and motion. (22) Of these some are only 
necessary for the apprehension of the senses, for 
which a gentle exertion is sufficient, as in the 
motions of the eye-lids and the jaws ; which, 
therefore, arise from the brain : but others are 
required for the motion of the limbs, and there- 
fore proceed from the spinal marrow. But 
because those nerves which originate in the 
spinal marrow, are not adequate to move the 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 175 

joints of the limbs, on account of their softness, 
the wise counsel of God has so ordered it, 
that fibres proceed from the nerves, and being 
filled with flesh, become muscles ; thus, from 
the extremity of the nerve proceeds the muscle, 
which increasing in its solidity, and strengthened 
by the union of fibres of a finer texture, becomes 
a tendon, which adhering closely to the limb 
enables the nerves, by this means, to move the 
different members of the body. 

I have adduced this, as one of the clearest exam- 
ples noticed in the work, " On the Usefulness 
of the various parts ;" (i. e. of the body,) in 
which many admirable things are brought for- 
ward, and in which it is fully shown that every 
part has a manifest utility, when examined by 
the light of sound reason and understanding. 

The same Divine Wisdom is also conspi- 
cuous in viviparous animals; for, because their 
young, when born, are exceedingly tender, and 
incapable of deriving their support from dry 
and solid food, the breasts of the female parent 
are therefore formed for the production of milk, 
that they may be nourished with that sort of 
fluid aliment, which is suited to their tempera- 
ment and feebleness, until they have gradually 
acquired firmness and strength. A similar 
mode of procedure is also observable in the 
Divine Government, of which there are many 
instances in our Law, wherein the transition 
from one thing to its opposite is not sudden and 
abrupt, but gradual and easy ; for it is not 
m 2 



176 REASONS OF THE 

agreeable to the nature of man, to relinquish 
readily, and in a moment, that to which he has 
long been accustomed. Therefore when God 
sent Moses, our Teacher, to render us a Royal 
Priesthood, and a Holy Nation ; he first taught 
the knowledge of God ; as it is said, " Unto thee 
it was showed, that thou mightest know that the 
Lord he is God." (Dent. iv. 35.) And again, 
(v. 39.) " Know therefore this day, and con- 
sider it in thine heart, that the Lord he is God 
in heaven above, and upon the earth beneath : 
there is none else." And then instructed us in 
the Worship of God ; as it is written, " To 
serve Him with all your heart and with all your 
soul." (Deut. xi. 13.) And again, " Ye shall 
serve the Lord your God, and he shall bless thy 
bread and thy water." (Exod. xxiii. 25.) And 
in another place, " You shall serve him and 
<*5 uyclGl deleave unto him." (Deut. xiii. 4.) But as at 
Jacwcp-tes ft- I that time, the universal practice, and the mode 
*W. *W5&,I of worship in which all were educated, was, 
' that various kinds of animals should be offered 
' in the temples in which their idols were placed, 
;| and before whom their worshippers were to burn 
<V incense and prostrate themselves; and as there 
were also certain persons, set apart for the ser- 
vice of those temples, which, as has been already 
shown, were erected in honour of the sun and 
moon, and the rest of the planetary bodies; 
therefore, that divine wisdom and providence of 
God, which so eminently shines forth in all his 
creatures, did not ordain the abandonment or 



*oz^ ir (it 



LAWS OF MOSES. 177 

abolition of all such worship. For it is the well- * 
known disposition of the human heart, to cleave 
to that to which it has been habituated, even in 
things to which it is not naturally inclined. To 
have decreed the entire abolition of all such wor- 
ship, would therefore have been the same, as if a 
Prophet should come and say, " It is the com- 
mand of God, that in the day of trouble, ye 
shall not pray, nor fast, nor publicly seek him ; 
but your worship shall be purely mental, and 
shall consist in meditation, not in action." — On 1.4/3, 
these accounts, the Creator retained those modes \ 
of worship, but transferred the veneration from ] 
created things and shadows, to his own Name ; 
and commanded us to direct our religious ser- j 
vices to himself. Thus he ordained that we 
should build him a Temple : as it is said, " Let 
them make me a sanctuary." (Exod. xxv. 8.) — 
That an Altar should be consecrated to his 
Name : " An Altar of Earth shalt thou make 
unto me. (Exod. xx. 24.) — That Sacrifices 
should be offered to Him : " If any man of you 
bring an offering unto the Lord, ye shall bring 
your offering of the cattle, even of the herd and 
of the flock." (Lev. i. 2.) — And that we should 
bow down and burn incense before him. But, 
on the other hand, He forbade that any of these 
things should be done in honour of any other, 
as it is declared ; " He that sacrinceth unto any 
god, save unto the Lord only, he shall be utterly 
destroyed :" (Exod. xxii. 20 :) and again, " Thou 
shalt worship no other god :" (Exod. xxxiv. 14 :) 



„. Jl~L> t£,U,~~ «wW 4+*U£» **4***r^ O^U ^?£*fc£^ 



178 REASONS OF THE 

He also separated the priests to the service of 
the Sanctuary, and commanded Moses concern- 
ing them ; " Thou shalt anoint them, and conse- 
crate them, and sanctify them, that they may 
minister unto me in the priest's office :" (Exod. 
xxviii. 41:) And he ordained that a sufficient pro- 
vision should be made for them, because they 
were employed in his house, and about his offer- 
ings, by those gifts which were termed the Gifts 
of the Priests and Levites. These things did 
Divine Wisdom enjoin, in order to eradicate 
idolatry, and establish the fundamental truths of 
the existence and unity of God ; without con- 
founding the minds of men, by the total aboli- 
tion of those modes of worship to which they 
had been accustomed, or by the necessity of 
acquiring a knowledge of new ones, with which 
they would have been utterly unacquainted. 

I am aware, indeed, that these positions are 
not likely to obtain immediate assent, but will 
rather appear, at first sight, to be encumbered 
with difficulties, and lead men to enquire : How 
is it possible that precepts and practices, which 
are so clearly explained, as having their own 
particular reasons for their institution, should 
not have been independently instituted, but 
should have had reference to some other cause, 
as -for instance, to lead us to the first intention of 
the Law? And what prevented the Divine 
Being from enjoining the first intention, and 
imparting to us the faculty of understanding it, 
so that there might have been no need for those 



LAWS OF MOSES. 179 

things which are only secondary in their inten- 
tion ? 

In order therefore to remove these doubts, 
and fully to explain the point in dispute; we 
reply, that the Law itself furnishes us with an 
occurrence of a similar nature, where it is said ; 
" God led them not through the way of the land 
of the Philistines, although that was near; — 
but — led the people about, through the way of 
the wilderness of the Red Sea." (Exod. xiii. 17, 
18.) In like manner, therefore, as God led 
them out of the straight road, into another, for 
fear of something which they could not bear, 
that they might ultimately attain their first 
object ; so God enjoined those precepts, on 
account of something which our minds could not 
naturally bear, that we might by them be led to 
the knowledge of the true God, and the aban- 
donment of idolatry, which are the first intention 
of the Law : For, as it would be irrational to sup- 
pose that the man who is every day working 
amongst bricks and mortar, or engaged in any 
similar employment, should, immediately, after 
washing his hands, go and combat with giants ; 
so it would be equally unnatural to expect, that 
those who have been trained up in the practice 
of those various services, and ceremonies, and 
modes of worship, until they have regarded 
them as rational, should at once renounce them 
all, and adopt a contrary course of action : — 
And as by the peculiar counsel of God, the 
Israelites were led about in the desert in order 



180 REASONS OF THE 

to acquire fortitude, to which their daily habits, 
and constant privations of delicacies and corpo- 
real enjoyments, such as baths, &c. were par- 
ticularly conducive; as contrary habits would 
have been to induce effeminacy ; and yet their 
children were not habituated to similar humi- 
liating and servile labours; And as all these 
things were done by the special command of 
God, according to what is said, u At the com- 
mandment of the Lord, the children of Israel 
journeyed, and at the commandment of the Lord, 
they pitched :" (Numb. ix. 18:) so also does that 
part of the Law proceed from the Divine Wis- 
dom, by which it is ordained, that a kind of 
worship similar to what they had been accus- 
tomed, should be continued amongst them; 
from which they might learn those essential 
truths, the belief of which constitutes the first 
intention of the Law. 

As to the other part of the objector's enquiry ; 
viz. "Why could not the Divine Being have 
enjoined his first intention, and imparted the 
faculty of understanding it ?," it maybe answered 
by retorting the question ; " Why could not 
God have led the Israelites through the land of 
the Philistines, and conferred valour and mar- 
tial ability upon them, that there might have 
been no need of the pillar of cloud by day, and 
of fire by night ?" 

The same sceptical disposition may also lead 
to another enquiry of the same kind, respecting 
the promises made to the obedient, and the 



LAWS OF MOSES. 181 

threatenings denounced against the rebellious ; 
and it may be asked, " When it was the pri- 
mary intention and will of God, that we should 
receive his Laws, and practise the duties they 
inculcated ; why did he not impart the constant 
ability to receive and practise them, that there 
might have been no need to affix rewards and 
punishments to them, or to declare that it should 
be well with us if we served him, but that if we 
rebelled against him we should be punished, 
since these promises and denunciations are only 
designed to pursue that which is the first and 
chief design of the Law of God. And why did 
he not implant within us a disposition to embrace 
and practise what is agreeable to his will, and 
naturally to fly from every thing he abhors ?" 

The answer to these and similar questions, is 
this, that although God sometimes miraculously 
changes the nature of other beings, he does not 
in the same way change the nature of man, and 
on this ground it is, that it is said, " O that 
there were such an heart in them, that they 
would fear me and keep all my commandments 
always, that it might be well with them, and 
with their children for ever." (Deut. v. 29.) 
This also is the cause why it has been necessary 
to give the precepts of the Law, and to subjoin 
to them promises, and to enforce them by 
rewards and punishments. As to the doctrine 
of miracles, I have elsewhere explained my 
sentiments on that subject; only it should be 
remarked, that what has just been observed, is 



182 



REASONS OF THE 



not to be understood, as though it were impos- 
sible for God to change the nature of man, for 
most assuredly it is quite possible to him, and 
fully within the reach of his power; but the 
meaning is, that, according to the principles of 
our law, it is not his will, nor ever will be ; — 
for if it were the will of God, thus miraculously 
to change the nature of man, there would be 
no need for the mission of the prophets, nor the 
promulgation of the law. (23) 

Reverting to our former proposition, we pro- 
ceed to observe, that as Oblations are a part of 
divine worship, only according to the secondary 
intention of the Law ; but invocation, prayer, 
and similar duties, a part of worship approxi- 
mating to the primary intention, and necessary 
to the attainment of it, the Divine Lawgiver 
has established a great distinction between these 
two kinds of worship. For, although oblations 
and sacrifices are offered in honour of the ever- 
blessed God, they are nevertheless not to be 
offered as before the giving of the Law, when 
every man might offer what sacrifices he pleased, 
at whatever time and place he chose ; or if he 
pleased might erect a temple and assume the 
priestly office ; for all these things are now pro- 
hibited ; — a particular house has been assigned to 
these services, according to what is said, u Thy 
holy things, — thou shalt take, and go unto the 
place which the Lord shall choose :" (Deut. 
xii. 26.) And to offer sacrifices in any other place 
is pronounced unlawful ; therefore it is written, 



LAWS OF MOSES. 183 

" Take heed to thyself, that thou offer not thy 
burnt-offerings in every place that thou seest." 
(Deut. xii. 13.) Nor are any permitted to bear 
the sacerdotal office, but those of a certain 
family ; all these things being intended to check 
every kind of improper worship, and to pre- 
vent the practice of every thing which the 
Divine Wisdom judged proper to be abolished. 
But prayer and deprecation are duties which 
every one may practise in any place, when- 
ever he pleases ; the same liberty also is allowed 
to every one with respect to the Zazith, or gar- 
ments with fringes ; the Mezuzah, or schedule 
affixed to the door-posts ; the Tephillin, or phy- 
lacteries made use of in prayer, (24) and other 
things of a similar nature. 

It is also for the reason just stated, that we 
find the prophets so frequently reproving men 
for their too great eagerness to offer sacrifices, 
and inculcating upon them, that they are not the 
first and independent object of the law, nor has 
the Divine Being any need of them. Thus Samuel, 
" Hath the Lord as great delight in burnt-offer- 
ings and sacrifices, as in obeying the voice of the 
Lord ? Behold to obey is better than sacrifice ; 
and to hearken, than the fat of rams." (1 Sam. 
xv. 22.) Isaiah also inquires, " To what pur- 
pose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto me, 
saith the Lord ?" (Isaiah i. 11.) And Jeremiah 
says, " I spake not unto your fathers, nor com- 
manded them in the day that I brought them out 
of the land of Egypt, concerning burnt- offer- 



184 REASONS OF THE 

ings or sacrifices; but this thing commanded I 
them, saying, Obey my voice, and I will be 
your God and ye shall be my people." (Jer. vii. 
22, 23.) These words of Jeremiah have, how- 
ever, given rise to a very general objection ; for 
almost every one is ready to urge, u How could 
Jeremiah affirm that God did not ordain burnt- 
offerings, and sacrifices, when it is well known 
that the greater part of the precepts of the Law 
relate to them ?" But the meaning of his words 
is, what has been already intimated, and is the 
same as if he had said, The primary intention of 
every part of the Law, is, that ye should know 
me, and forsake the service of other gods, that 
I may be to you a God, and that ye may be to 
me a people ; and the precepts which enjoin obla- 
tions, and command you to worship in my 
house, are given to instruct and assist you in 
this duty; for the reason why I have transferred 
this mode of worship to my own name, is to 
efface the remembrance of idolatry, and estab- 
lish the doctrine of my unity. But these 
designs ye have defeated, and have had regard 
only to the outward worship ; for ye have doubted 
my existence, as it is said, " They have belied 
the Lord, and said, It is not he." (Jer. v. 12.) 
Ye have served idols, and burned incense to 
Baal, and have gone after other gods ; and have 
come to my house, and have cleaved to, and 
had respect only to the temple of the Lord, and 
to the oblations, which were not the first and 
principal object of the law. 



LAWS OF MOSES. 



185 



There is also another way of explaining these 
verses of the Prophet, by which the same senti- 
ment is maintained. For since it is clear both 
from Scripture and the Cabala, that the first 
precepts which were given to us, were not those 
which regarded burnt-offerings and sacrifices, it 
might be justly affirmed, that when God brought 
up our fathers out of Egypt, he did not com- 
mand them, i. e. first and principally concern- 
ing burnt-offerings and sacrifices. Nor is the 
passover of Egypt any serious objection to this 
explanation; for, not only did there exist a 
manifest reason for its institution, but it also 
took place in the land of Egypt, whilst the pre- 
cepts referred to by Jeremiah, were those which 
were commanded after the departure of our 
fathers out of that land, as it is said, " In the day 
that I brought you out of the land of Egypt." 

The first precept given after the departure 
from Egypt, was that which was received by 
us in Marah, when it was said to us, " If thou 
wilt diligently hearken to the voice of the 
Lord thy God." (Exod. xv. 26.) For, " there 
he made a statute and an ordinance," (or judg- 
ment,) v. 25. The words of the Cabala, are, 
" In Marah, I will give the sabbath and judg- 
ments." The " statute," therefore, refers to 
the sabbath, but the "judgments" or ordinances, 
to the commandments for the prevention of 
sin. This, as I have already shown, is the first 
intention and principal object of the law, viz. 
to inculcate the belief of true opinions, as for 



186 REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 

instance, the creation of the world, to establish 
which, is the chief ground of the precept of the 
sabbath, (25) and then to banish sin from 
amongst men. 

It is, therefore, evident, that the first precepts 
were not those which concerned burnt-offerings 
and sacrifices, which are only secondary in the 
intention of the law; and that what Jeremiah 
says, is of the very same import as what we 
read in the Psalms, where the people are blamed 
for being ignorant of the first intention of the 
law, and not distinguishing betwixt it and the 
subordinate design. " Hear, O my people, and 
I will speak ; O Israel, and I will testify against 
thee : I am God, even thy God. I will not 
reprove thee for thy sacrifices, or thy burnt- 
oiferings, to have been continually before me. 
I will take no bullock out of thy house, nor he- 
goats out of thy folds." Such also will be found 
to be the meaning of every other place, where 
these or similar expressions are used, and which 
the reader will do well constantly to recollect. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



The Prohibition of external Uncleanness and Impurity is conducive 
to the Purification of the Heart. 

|~|NE general design of the law is, amongst 
other things, to control the appetites and 
restrain the passions, and to exterminate and ren- 
der despicable those that are unlawful and inju- 
rious. Thus, it is well known, that the major 
part of men place their chief pleasure in immod- 
erate eating and drinking, and venery ; — practices, 
destructive of man's intellectual and highest 
perfection, and inimical to all good order and 
government. For when the depraved desires 
only are indulged, the mental vigour is des- 
troyed ; cares and anxieties are multiplied ; 
hatred, malice, and envy are increased ; con- 
tentions, wars, and robberies are excited, and 
the man suffers a premature death. 

The reason of this is, that foolish men pro- 
pose to themselves voluptuousness, as their chief 
good and ultimate aim. 

To remedy this evil, God, in infinite wisdom, 
gave us laws calculated to banish such imaginary 
schemes of pleasure ; to divert our thoughts 



188 REASONS OF THE 

from them, and to prevent every thing tending 
to voluptuousness, or unlawful gratifications. 
Such is the principal intention of our law. See, 
therefore, how strictly the law enjoins the 
punishment of death upon him who seeks enjoy- 
ment in intemperate eating and drinking ; and 
who, in the law, is called, "a stubborn and rebel- 
lious son, — a glutton and a drunkard." (Deut. 
xxi. 20.) The law commands him to be stoned, 
and speedily taken out of the way, before his 
wickedness and malice proceed to murder, and 
his intemperance injure and corrupt others. 

In like manner, it is agreeable to the general 
intention of the law, that man should be kind, 
and gentle, and obliging to his neighbours ; not 
rough and crabbed, but attentive to the wishes 
of his friends, hearing their petitions, and grant- 
ing their requests. To this effect is the divine 
command : " Circumcise therefore the foreskin 
of your heart, and be no more stiff-necked." 
(Deut. x. 16.) And again, " Take heed and 
hearken, O Israel ; this day thou art become the 
people of the Lord thy God." (Deut. xxvii. 9.) 
And, " If ye be willing and obedient, ye shall 
eat the good of the land." (Isaiah i. 19.) It is 
also said of those who are ready and prompt to 
receive, and obey, that which ought to be 
received : " We will hear and do." (Deut. 
v. 27.) and elsewhere, figuratively ; " Draw me, 
we will run after thee." (Cant. i. 4.) 

Our Law also designs to inculcate purity and 
sanctity, or, in other words, continence and 



LAWS OF MOSES. 189 

chastity, as will be hereafter explained. For 
when God commanded Moses to sanctify the 
people, to prepare them for receiving the Law, 
he said, " Sanctify them to-day and to-morrow." 
(Exod. xix. 10.) And again, Moses said to the 
people, " Come not at your wives ; " (Exod. 
xix. 15.) evidently teaching, that chastity is 
sanctification ; elsewhere teaching also the same 
doctrine respecting abstinence from wine ; saying 
of the Nazarite, " He shall be holy." (Numb, 
vi. 5.) In the book of Leviticus also, we find it 
enjoined to be holy, since it is said, " Sanctify 
yourselves, and be ye holy." (Levit. xi. 44.) Such 
is the sanctity of the precepts ; and as the Scrip- 
ture calls the observation and fulfilment of them, 
sanctification and purity, so it terms the trans- 
gression of them, and the perpetration of any 
thing base, impurity and unclecmness. 

Cleanliness of dress, ablution of the body, 
and the removal of all dirt and squalidness, 
are certainly the intention of the Law, though 
considered as subordinate to the purification of 
the heart and conduct from depraved opinions, 
and immoral actions. (26.) For, to suppose that 
exterior purity, by ablutions of the body and dress, 
can be sufficient, though in other respects a 
man indulges himself in gluttony, inchastity, 
and drunkenness, is the extremest folly ! Hence, 
Isaiah says, " They that sanctify themselves, and 
purify themselves in the gardens, behind one 
(tree) in the midst, eating swine's flesh, and the 
abomination, and the mouse, shall be consumed 
N 



190 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 



together, saith the Lord." (Isaiah lxvi. 17.) 
For these words signify, that in public they 
cleansed and purified themselves, but afterwards 
in private and in their own houses denied them- 
selves with all manner of sin ; and ate meats that 
were prohibited, such as " swine's flesh, and the 
abomination, and the mouse." — As to the expres- 
sion, " behind one (tree) in the midst," it most 
probably refers to unchaste and forbidden 
acts. From the whole, however, we learn that 
they were indeed outwardly clean, but that 
that inwardly they were full of evil desires, and 
lusts, inconsistent with the Law ; the principal 
scope and design of which is, first to check and 
extinguish unholy desires ; and then to purify 
the exterior, when it has purified the inward and 
hidden affections of the heart. Solomon has 
described those who are superstitiously attentive 
to purifying the body and dress, but inwardly 
inclined to evil, and addicted to impurity, when 
he says, " There is a generation that are pure in 
their own eyes, and yet is not washed from their 
filthiness." (Prov. xxx, 12.) 

Let what has now been said respecting the 
designs of the Law be well considered, and it will 
be found to throw light upon the causes of many 
precepts which were previously involved in 
obscurity. 



CHAPTER IX. 



The Law is accommodated to Nations, not to Individuals. 

TT is necessary for the elucidation of this 
subject, farther to remark, that the Law is not 
formed for extraordinary cases, and actions of rare 
occurrence ; but, for the common and ordinary 
transactions of life; and consequently that its 
various precepts and instructions are principally 
directed to the promotion of public and general 
good. To form, therefore, a due estimate of that 
Law, which is certainly Divine, regard must be 
had to those extensive and general benefits which 
result from it to the community at large ; and 
not to the partial inconvenience or injury which 
here and there an individual may sustain 
from its authority and exercise. Just as in the 
-operations of Nature, benefits are common and 
frequent ; but injuries particular and seldom. 

Agreeably to these views, we need not wonder, 
if the intention of the Law be not answered in 
all and every individual ; but that there are some 
persons to be found, who, notwithstanding every 
legal restraint, continue irregular and imperfect* 
All men are not possessed of the same natural 
qualities; and although all proceed from the 
same God, and have been formed by the same 
power, and are committed to the same pastor, 
n2 



192 REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 

yet it would have been impossible to have con- 
stituted their natures fixed and invariable. 

Besides, as the natures of men are various 
and mutable, Laws cannot, like medicines, be 
suited to every constitution at all times ; for 
these may be accommodated to any man's 
temperament, at any time ; but Laws must be 
absolute and universal, whether convenient to 
individuals or not ; and had our Law been sub- 
jected to the inclinations and personal advantages 
of individuals, it could not have been free from 
corruption ; of which, far be it from us to have 
any suspicion. 

On this account also, it would be indecorous for 
those precepts of the Law, which are referable 
to its first intention, to be subjected to times 
and places, instead of being absolute and 
universal, according to what God hath said: — 
" One ordinance shall be both for you of the con- 
gregation, and also for the stranger that 
sojourneth with you." (Numb, xv, 15.) For, as 
we have elsewhere shown, the precepts are 
directed to general reformation. 

After having made these preliminary observa- 
tions, I shall now proceed to those explanations 
of the Law, which were at first proposed. 



CHAPTER X. 



The Precepts divided into Fourteen Classes. 

^F'HE Precepts of the Law, may, I conceive, 
be advantageously divided into fourteen 
classes. 

The first class includes those precepts which 
contain the Fundamental Articles of Faith. To 
which are added those which relate to Repentance 
and Fasting.—Of the utility of precepts of this 
nature there can be no doubt. 

The second class comprehends the precepts 
respecting Idolatry ; to which belong also those 
relating to Garments made of different materials ; 
to Vines of different kinds ; and to the Fruits of 
trees produced during the first three years after being 
planted. The general reason for this class of 
precepts is, that they are designed to confirm 
and perpetuate the doctrines necessary to be 
believed. 

The third class relates to the Reformation of 
manners. For morality is necessary for the due 
regulation of mankind, in order to promote the 
perfection of human society and conduct. 

The fourth class embraces the various precepts 
respecting Alms, and Loans, and Debts ; and those 
which are allied to them, as those which relate to 



194 REASONS OF THE 

Valuations of Property ; to Things anathematized ; 
and to Judgments concerning loans and servants. 
The benefit of precepts of this nature, is 
experienced by almost every one ; for a man may 
be rich to day, and to-morrow he or his posterity 
be poor ; and the man who is poor to-day may be 
rich to-morrow. 

The fifth class is composed of those precepts 
which prohibit injustice and rapine ; the utility of 
which is evident. 

The sixth class is formed of the precepts respect- 
ing Pecuniary Mulcts; as for instance those 
adjudged for Theft, Robbery, and False-witness. 
The necessity and advantage of all the precepts of 
this nature are easily perceived ; for if rogues and 
villains were suffered to go unpunished, there 
would be no end to the number of rascals of this 
description, nor to the depredations they would 
commit. Remission, or suspension of punishment 
in these cases, is not, as some have foolishly 
imagined, Clemency and Mercy; but rather 
Cruelty, Inclemency, and Political Ruin. True 
Clemency is what God has commanded ; " Judges 
and Officers shalt thou make thee in all thy 
gates." (Deut. xvi, 18.) 

The seventh class includes the precepts relating 
to Pecuniary Judgments, arising from the mutual 
transactions of trade and commerce ; such as those 
of Lending, Hiring, Depositing, Buying, Selling, 8fc. 
The utility of precepts of this sort is very 
evident ; for as it is necessary that men should 



LAWS OF MOSES. 195 

engage in mercantile concerns, and embark their 
property in them; so it is equally necessary 
that equitable rules should be established for the 
direction of trade, and for a just and proportionate 
valuation of property. 

The eighth class comprehends the precepts 
respecting Holy Days ; as, the Sabbath, and 
various Festival- days. The causes and reasons of 
them are given in the Law itself, which, as we 
shall afterwards show, teaches us that they serve 
either for the confirmation of some article of faith, 
or for the recreation of the body, or for both. 

The ninth class inoludes other parts of the 
Divine Worship, as the recital of Prayer, the 
Reading of the Shema, or, u Hear, O Israel," 
(28) and various other acts of a similar nature, 
which all serve to confirm the doctrines of the 
Love of God, and of what is to be attributed to 
Him, or to be believed concerning Him. 

The tenth class contains the precepts respect- 
ing the Sanctuary and its Ministers, Vessels and 
Instruments. The utility of these precepts has 
already been noticed. 

The eleventh class embraces the precepts con- 
cerning Oblations. We have also previously 
shown the necessity and peculiar propriety of 
these ordinances at the period when they were 
first enjoined. 

The twelfth class comprehends those precepts 
which concern Pollutions and Purifications ; the 
general design of which is to prevent persons 
from entering rashly into the Sanctuary ; and to 



196 REASONS OF THE 

teach them that reverence, and honour, and fear 
which are due to it. 

The thirteenth class is composed of the precepts 
which relate to Prohibited Meats, and of other 
precepts of a similar nature. Vows and the Law of 
the Nazarite belong also to this class, the general 
design of which is to lay restraint upon the 
appetite, and to check the immoderate desire of 
dainties and delicacies. 

The fourteenth class is formed of the precepts 
relating to Unlawful Concubinage. Circumcision, 
and the Pairing of beasts of different species, are 
also included in this class. The objects of these 
Laws evidently is to coerce libidinous desires, to 
prevent their immoderate gratification and to 
guard men against the pursuit of them as their 
principal aim, which is too general a practice of 
foolish wordlings. 

There is also another division of the precepts 
worthy of notice, viz : — into those which regard 
God and Man; and those which relate to Man 
and Man. In the first part will be included those 
precepts that are contained in the fifth, sixth, 
seventh, and part of the third classes ; whilst the 
second part will embrace the rest. For all the 
precepts, whether affirmative or negative, the 
design of which is, to inculcate any article of 
Faith, to urge any Virtuous Action, or to reform 
and amend the Morals of Men, are said to be 
betwixt God and Man ; although, it may be well 
to remark, that even these do, ultimately and after 
many intervening circumstances, lead to those 



LAWS OF MOSKS. 197 

occurrences which take place between man and 
man. 

Having thus indicated the different classes of 
the precepts, I shall now endeavour to explain 
the causes and reasons of them, so far as any of 
them may appear useless or obscure ; except with 
regard to a few of them, whose design I have not 
hitherto been able to discover. 



CHAPTER XI. 



Of the Precepts of the First Class. 

HPHE precepts contained in the first class, and 
which relate to the essential articles of faith, 
are evidently well founded and reasonable; 
and need only to be examined separately to 
produce the fullest conviction of their utility. 

How useful, for instance, in the promotion 
of learning and instruction, are their various 
exhortations and admonitions ! And yet, with- 
out wisdom and doctrine, there would be no 
good works, no laudable actions, no just sen- 
timents. 

Nor are those advantages obscure, which 
result from the reverence and honour paid 
to the teachers of the Law ; for, unless they 
were great and honourable in the eyes of men, 
none would hearken to their words, or receive 
their instructions respecting the things neces- 
sary to be known or practised. The com- 
mandment which inculcates modesty and bash- 
fulness, is designed for this end ; — as it is said, 
" Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head." 
(Levit. xix. 32.) 

Of this class of Precepts, is that command- 
ment which forbids us to swear falsely or rashly 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 199 

by His name ; the design of which is, to impress 
our minds with a conviction of the greatness 
and glory of God, for which purpose injunctions 
of this nature are peculiarly suited. 

The precept also, by which we are com- 
manded to " call upon Him in the day of 
trouble," (Psalm 1. 15.) is of the same nature, 
as is also the command to u blow the alarm with 
the trumpets." (Numb. x. 9.) For by such 
acts, the doctrine of a Divine Providence is con- 
firmed, and we are taught that nothing happens 
by chance, and that the Most High God knows 
and understands our afflictions, and has power 
in himself to mitigate them, if we serve him ; 
and to exasperate and render them more severe, 
if we rebel against him. This is what is meant 
when he says, " If ye will walk by chance 
(Eng. Trans. " contrary unto"} with me ;" for 
thereby he says, When I bring your afflictions 
upon you, to punish you ; if ye shall believe 
them to be accidental and fortuitous, then will I 
render them, by chance, (according to your 
thoughts,) more grievous and heavy. " If ye 
will walk by chance (Eng. trans. " contrary 
unto"} with me ; then will I walk by chance 
(Eng. trans. ". contrary unto"} also with you in 
fury." (Levit. xxvi. 27, 28.) For by supposing 
that those things occur by accident merely, 
which are really occasioned by their maintaining 
erroneous opinions, and practising wicked works, 
they are prevented from being led by them to 
repentance, according to what is said, " Thou 



200 REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 

hast stricken them but they have not grieved." 
(Jer. v. 3.) He has, therefore, enjoined us to 
call upon Him; to offer supplications unto Him; 
and to cry unto Him in the time of trouble. 

The doctrine of Repentance clearly belongs 
to the same class ; that is, it is one of those 
tenets necessary to be believed by those who 
wish to venerate our Law. For no man can be 
found who does not sin, either by being igno- 
rant of some truth or doctrine which he ought 
to believe, or by adopting a course of conduct 
which is forbidden, or by yielding to the vio- 
lence and predominance of anger or other pas- 
sions. Were men, therefore, to believe it impos- 
sible to amend or correct their errors, they 
would continue in their sins, and, seeing no 
remedy remaining, would be constantly adding 
to their crimes, and increasing their guilt ; but 
believing and embracing the doctrine of repent- 
ance, they will not only reform themselves, but 
will also bring forth better fruits and more to per- 
fection than even before they sinned grossly. On 
this account those acts which confirm this true 
and useful doctrine, are enjoined most frequently ; 
such as confessions, fastings, and oblations, both 
for sins of ignorance and pride. And as the 
general design of conversion from sin is, that we 
may utterly forsake it, and as this too is the 
intention of repentance, the utility of all these 
precepts is clearly established. 



CHAPTER XII. 



Of the "Precepts of the Second Class; or, those which relate to 
Idolatry. 

npHE precepts of the second class were evi- 
dently enjoined, in order to preserve men 
from idolatry, and other false and heretical 
opinions of a similar tendency. Such are the 
precepts respecting Jugglers, - Enchanters, 
Astrologers, and Magicians, Diviners, Pytho- 
nesses, or those who consult them, and others 
of the same cast. (28) 

A perusal of the books already noticed will 
fully evince, that astrology or magic was for- 
merly practised by the Zabii and Chaldeans, 
and still more frequently by the Egyptians and 
Canaanites ; and that not only they themselves 
believed, but that they also endeavoured to 
persuade others, that, by such arts, the most 
admirable operations of nature might be pro- 
duced, relative both to individuals and whole 
provinces. But how can reason comprehend, 
or the understanding assent to the possibility of 
of producing such effects by the means they 
adopt ?, as, for instance, when they gather a 
certain herb at a particular time, or take a cer- 
tain and definite number of any thing ; or prac- 



202 REASONS OF THE 

tise any other of their many similar superstitions. 
These I shall class under three heads. 

The first includes those which relate to plants, 
animals, and metals. The second refers to the 
time and manner in which such works are to 
be performed. The third is formed of those 
which consist in human actions and gestures ; 
as, leaping, clapping the hands, shouting, laugh- 
ing, lying prostrate on the earth, burning some- 
thing, producing a smoke, and lastly, pro- 
nouncing certain intelligible or unintelligible 
words. Such are the different kinds of magical 
operations. 

Some of their magical operations, however, 
partook of all these ; as when they said, Pluck 
such a leaf of such a herb, when the moon 
is in such a degree and position ; or, Take 
the horn of such a beast, or a certain quantity 
of his sweat, or hair, or blood, when the sun is 
in the meridian, or in some other part of the 
heavens ; or, Take of such a metal, or of differ- 
ent metals, fuse them under such a constellation, 
and during a certain position of the moon ; 
then pronounce certain words, and produce a 
smoke from particular leaves, and, by doing this 
in a certain way, such and such events will 
follow. 

Others of their magical operations, they 
judged might be accomplished, by only one of 
the before-mentioned kinds of superstitious 
actions. But these were principally to be prac- 
tised by women. Thus, for the production of 



LAWS OF MOSES, 203 

water, they say, that if ten virgins shall adorn 
themselves, and put on red garments, leap so 
as to jostle each other, going forwards and 
backwards, and afterwards extend their fingers 
towards the sun, making certain signs, by 
this means water will be procured. They also 
affirm, that if four women lie down on their 
backs, and extending their feet upwards, strike 
them together, repeating certain words, accom- 
panied by certain gestures, showers of hail 
will be prevented by the idolatrous and 
shameful action. Many other similar falsehoods 
and contemptible ravings may be met with in 
their writings, in which their operations are only 
to be performed by women. But in all these 
actions, regard and reverence must be paid, say 
they, to the heavenly bodies, without which it 
will be impossible to render them effectual ; 
since, according to them, every plant, as well 
as every animal and metal, has its proper 
star. They, therefore, deem these actions to be 
parts of the worship of the heavenly bodies, 
which, being pleased with certain actions, or 
words, or suffumigations, grant their worship- 
pers whatever they desire. (29) 

After stating these instances furnished by 
their own books still extant among us, I beg 
the reader's attention to the following remarks. 

The scope of the whole Law and the very 
hinge on which it turns, being this, that Idolatry 
may be banished from among us, the very name 
of it be blotted out,, and no power of assisting 



204 REASONS OF THE 

or injuring mankind attributed to the stars, it 
necessarily follows, that every astrologer (or 
magician) must be slain ; because every astro- 
loger is, doubtless, an idolater, though in a 
peculiar and different way from that in which 
the multitude are worshippers of idols; and 
because the greater part of such works are prac- 
tised chiefly by women, therefore, the Law 
says, " Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live." 
(Exod. xxii. 18.) And further, because men 
are naturally inclined to exercise clemency to 
women, and to pity them, it is expressly enjoined 
respecting idolatry, " A man also or a woman 
shall be put to death:" (Levit. xx. 27.) To which 
nothing similar is to be found either with regard 
to the profanation of the Sabbath, or any other 
precept. 

The magicians (or astrologers) believed them- 
selves to be able to effect many things, by their 
magical arts and charms; such as expelling wild 
beasts and noxious animals, as lions, serpents, 
and such like, from the cities, and preventing all 
kinds of injuries to plants. Some also were 
found who pretended to prevent hail, and to 
defend vines from the injuries of worms by 
destroying them ; whilst others boasted of being 
able to prevent the falling of leaves or fruit 
from trees. On this account, therefore, God 
declared to them in the words of the Covenant, 
that, because of idolatry and magic, by which 
they thought to deliver themselves from them, 
those noxious creatures should be sent and con- 



LAWS OF MOSES. 205 

tinue among them, for he says, " I will also 
send wild beasts among you ;" (Levit. xxvi. 22 ;) 
and, " I will send the teeth of beasts upon 
them, with the poison of serpents of the dust." 
(Deut. xxxii. 24.) And again, " The fruit of 
thy land, and all thy labours, shall a nation 
which thou knowest not eat up ; " and, " Thou 
shalt plant vineyards and dress them ; but shalt 
neither drink of the wine, nor gather the grapes ; 
for the worms shall eat them : thou shalt have 
olive-trees throughout all thy coasts, but thou 
shalt not anoint thyself with the oil ; for thine 
olive shalt cast its fruit." (Deut. xxviii. 33, 
39, 40.) The sum of which is, that by those 
very actions which the idolaters adopt as the 
most likely means to establish and confirm their 
worship, and to persuade men that they will 
thereby avert the evils that are threatened them, 
and secure the opposite benefits, — by those 
very practices they will draw down upon them- 
selves the evils they dreaded, and prevent them- 
selves obtaining the blessings they desired. 
Hence the reader may perceive the design of 
the special blessings and curses contained in 
the words of the covenant, and observe their 
great utility. And that men might be still 
farther removed from every magical operation, 
care was taken that nothing should be done 
according to their rites and customs, and there- 
fore all those things were forbidden, which were 
asserted to produce benefit by special and occult 
qualities and powers, contrary to common obser- 
O 



206 REASONS OF THE 

vation : on which account it is said, " Neither 
shall ye walk in their ordinances ;" — nor " walk 
in the manners of the nations which T cast out 
before you." (Lev. xviii, 3 ; xx, 53.) These 
are what our Rabbins call The ways of the 
Amorites, and consider as branches of the magical 
art, because they do not originate in reason, but 
arise from magical practices and astrological 
observations, inducing them to worship and 
venerate the heavenly bodies ; and hence they 
say — " That in whatever there is any thing medi- 
cinal, in that there is nothing of the Ways of the 
Amorites;" by which they only mean, that every 
thing is lawful which is agreeable to nature and 
reason, and every thing else unlawful. Thus 
when it is said, — ■" The tree which casts its fruit 
must be loaded with stones, or anointed with 
stibium ; and it is asked, What reason can be 
assigned for these practices ? — It is evident that 
the reason for loading it with stones is to weaken 
its power ; but that for the anointing, no sufficient 
reason can be adduced, it is, therefore like every 
thing similar, to be accounted as one of the ways 
of the Amorites, and consequently forbidden." In 
like manner, when it is inquired respecting abor- 
tions of holy things, where they must be buried ? 
Itis replied, " They must neither be suspended in 
a tree, nor buried where two ways meet, because 
of the ways of the Amorites." Nor ought any 
doubt to arise in the mind because they freely 
permitted the suspension of a key on a cross-bar ? 
or the use of foxes' teeth, since in those times 



-LAWS OF MOSES. 207 

they placed confidence in such things as had been 
approved by experience, and made use of them 
in medicine, in the same way that we still use a 
certain herb as a cure for Epilepsy, by hanging 
it about the neck of the person afflicted ; give the 
excrements of a dog to a scrophulous person, or 
for ulcerations of the throat ; and prescribe a 
fumigation of vinegar made from saffron for 
imposthumes and dangerous ulcers. f30) For 
whatever is proved useful by experience, may be 
made use of in medicine, although other reasons 
may be wanting. Let the reader therefore attend 
to the important makers which have been unfolded 
to him, and keep them, for " they shall be an 
increase of joy on thy head." 

In our great work we have shown, that it was 
forbidden to " round the corners of the head," 
(i. e. to shave off the hair,) or to " mar the 
corners of the beard," (Lev. xix, 27,) because the 
priests among the idolaters were accustomed thus 
to poll and shave themselves. (31) 

The same reason also exists for the precept 
prohibiting the wearing "garments mingled of 
linen and woollen," since, as we find by their books, 
the priests of the idolaters clothed themselves 
with robes of linen and woollen mixed together, 
besides wearing on the finger a ring made of a 
certain metal. 

On similar grounds it is enjoined, that "the 
woman shall not wear that which pertaineth unto 
a man, neither shall a man put on a woman's 
garment." (Deut. xxii, 5.) (32) For in the books of 



208 REASONS OF THE 

the idolaters it is commanded, that, when a man 
presents himself before (the image of) the Star of 
Venus, he shall wear the coloured dress of a 
Woman ; and when a Woman adores the Star of 
Mars, she shall appear in armour. (33.) Another 
reason may also be given for this prohibition, from 
the tendency of such actions to excite to 
licentiousness and inchastity. 

It is also unlawful to use, or make a gain of 
idols, (i. e. by buying or selling), and the reason 
is evident, lest any one, receiving an idol to break 
in pieces, should retain it whole, and at length fall 
into the snare himself; or by deriving profit 
from it, if broken in pieces, and melting it or sell- 
ing it, should consider it as the cause of pros- 
perity. For the vulgar are apt to take accidental 
things for true and substantial reasons, as we often 
hear men say, — From the time they dwelt in such 
ahouse ; or bought that horse, or this or that thing, 
they have been rich, their prosperity increased, 
and the blessing of God has been upon them : — so 
that what was accidental is regarded as the true 
cause ; and thus, by parity of reason, it might 
happen that from the time of selling an idol, the 
business of some one might prosper, his substance 
increase, and the sale of the image or idol thus be 
accounted the cause of his prosperity, and what 
is directly contrary to the words of the Divine 
Law might believed. — It is also to avoid the same 
error, that no gain is allowed to be made of the 
coverings of idols, or the oblations and instruments 
of idolatry: for in those times such was the con- 



LAWS OF MOSES. 209 

fidence of men in the stars, that they believed 
life and death, and every kind of good and evil to 
be under their influence, on which account the 
law combats the opinion by every means, and, in 
order to eradicate it, directs against it the Words 
of the Covenant — the Testimonies — the Oaths — 
and the heaviest Curses, and particularly forbids 
us to receive or make use of any part of the 
price of an idol, and declares that if any one 
intermix it with his other property, both that and 
the rest of his goods shall be taken away from 
him, according to what is said, — (Deut.vii. 26,) 
— " Neither shalt thou bring an abomination into 
thine house, lest thou be a cursed thing like it ; 
but thou shalt utterly detest it, and thou shalt 
utterly abhor it ; for it is a cursed thing ;" So 
far is it from being supposed that any good can 
•be derived from it. (34) Thus shall we rind, on 
examination, that the reason for all the laws 
against idolatry, is to eradicate whatever is 
erroneous, and banish it from the earth. 

In enumerating the things against which we are 
thus warned, it is important to remark that the 
advocates of those opinions which are destitute 
of foundation or utility, in order to confirm their 
superstitions, and to induce belief in them, art- 
fully intimate, that those who do not perform the 
actions by which their superstitions are confirmed 
are always punished by some misfortune or other ; 
and therefore when any evil accidentally happens, 
they extol such actions or rather superstitions as 
they wish him to practise, hoping thereby to in- 



210 REASONS OF THE 

duce liim to embrace their opinions. (35) Thus, 
since it is well known, from the very nature of 
man, that there is nothing of which men are more 
afraid than of the loss of their property and 
children, therefore the worshippers of fire 
declared and circulated the opinion, that, if they 
did not cause their sons or daughters to pass 
through the fire, all their children would die ; 
there can be no doubt therefore, but that every 
one would hasten diligently to perform it, both 
from their great love to their children and fear 
of losing them, and because of the facility of the 
art, nothing more being required than to lead the 
child through the fire, the performance of which 
was rendered still more probable by the children 
being most generally committed to the care of the 
women, of whose intellectual weakness and 
consequent credence in such things no one is 
ignorant. (36) Hence the Scripture vehemently 
opposes the action, and uses such arguments 
against it as against no other kind of idolatry 
whatever, — " He hath given of his seed unto 
Moloch, to defile my Sanctuary and to pro- 
fane my Holy Name." (Levit. xx, 3.) Moses 
therefore declares, in the name of God, that, by 
that very act by which they expected to preserve 
the life of their children, by that act they shall 
destroy it ; because God will exterminate both 
him who commits the crime, and also his family: 
" I will set my face against that man, and against 
his family, and will cut him off." (Lev. xx. 5.) 
Nevertheless traces of this species of superstition 



LAWS OF MOSES. 211 

are still existing : for we see midwives take new- 
born children wrapped in swaddling-clothes, and 
wave them to and fro in the smoke of herbs of an 
unpleasant odour thrown into the fire,— a relict, 
no doubt, of this passing through the fire, and 
one which ought not to be suffered. (37) From 
this we may discover the perverse cunning of 
those men who propagated and established their 
error with such persuasive energy, that although 
it has been combated by the law for more than 
two thousand years, yet vestiges of it are still 
remaining. 

The idolaters acted in a similar way also 
respecting riches and property, for they instituted 
the practice of worshipping a certain tree called 
Asherah, (38) and ordered that one part of the 
fruit of it should be offered, and another part 
eaten in the idol-temple. They likewise enjoined 
that the same should be observed with regard to 
the first-fruits of every tree bearing edible fruit, 
adding that every tree would dry up and perish, 
its fruit fade or be diminished, or some other 
injury happen to it, if the first-fruits were not 
thus used, in the same manner, as we have before 
said, that they affirmed all children would die 
who were not made to pass through the fire. 
For fear therefore of suffering the loss of their 
goods, persons readily engaged to practise these 
things. Yet the law rose against this superstitious 
custom when God commanded that the fruit 
produced during the first three years should be 
burned : " When ye shall come into the land, and 



212 REASONS OF THE 

shall have planted all manner of trees for food, 
then ye shall count the fruit thereof as 
uncircumcised : three years shall it be uncircum- 
cised unto you : it shall not be eaten of." 
(Lev. xix, 23.) For some trees bear fruit in one 
year, some in two, and others in three years after 
they are planted, according to the three methods 
made use of in planting, by setting, by layers or 
cuttings, and by grafting; no attention being paid 
to the sowing of fruit-stones, or kernels with the 
husks, concerning which the law enjoins nothing, 
referring only to the modes of planting most 
generally in use, and to the time of the first 
bearing of fruit by trees in the land of Israel, 
which generally was within the three years. (40) 

It is, however, promised that the loss of these 
first-fruits should be compensated by an increase 
of fruit afterwards, as it is said, " that it may yield 
unto you the increase thereof." (Lev. xix, 25.) 
Nevertheless the fruits of the fourth year were 
commanded to be eaten before the Lord in 
his (holy) place, because the idolaters were 
accustomed to eat their first-fruits in the temples 
of their idols. 

The ancient idolaters have also stated in their 
books, that it was a practice among them to 
suffer certain things, which they name, to 
putrify or rot, and afterwards when the sun 
was in a certain position, to sprinkle them, 
accompanied with particular magical rites, about 
the fruit-tree which had been planted, imagin- 
ing that if this were done by the man who 



LAWS OF MOSES. 213 

planted it, it would cause it to flower and bear 
fruit earlier than others usually do. (41) This 
strange custom they consider as being similar 
in its nature to the operations of the speaking 
images which they had, and to the other magi- 
cal rites which were practised by them for the 
purpose of producing fruit early; but how 
strictly the Divine Law prohibits all magical 
operations, has already been shown. It is also 
because of this practice, that God prohibits all 
the fruits which trees bear for the first three 
years; for by this prohibition it was rendered 
unnecessary to endeavour to produce fruit 
earlier than usual ; and since the trees in the 
land of Israel generally bore fruit in the natu- 
ral way in the third year, there was no neces- 
sity for a magical rite, at that time so cele- 
brated. 

Again, among the remarkable opinions of the 
Zabii, are those which relate to the incision 
or grafting of one tree into another, affirming, 
that if it be done when the moon is in such 
or such a position ; — if it be fumigated in a cer- 
tain way; — and if, at the moment of incision 
or grafting, certain words be spoken, then that 
which is produced by that tree, will be exceed- 
ingly useful and salutary. (42) But the most 
absurd things of this nature which they have 
said, is at the commencement of the book, 
Of grafting Olives into Citrons; and, in my opinion, 
the medical work that in time past was hidden 
by Hezekiah, was of this kind. On this subject 



214 REASONS OF THE 

they say, that, when one kind is grafted into 
another, the cyon is to be held and inserted by a 
beautiful damsel during the performance of the 
most filthy and detestable actions :* and of the 
frequency of this practice, in those times, there 
can be no doubt, lustful gratifications being 
superadded to the benefits supposed to be deriv- 
able from such acts. The Law, therefore, pro- 
hibited C3»«i>3 (Caleim^) i. e. the grafting of one 
tree into another ; (Levit. xix. 19 ;) that we 
might be free from this heresy of the idolaters, 
and detest their unnatural lusts. On account 
also of this mode of practising incision or graft- 
ing of trees, it was unlawful to mingle seeds of 
different kinds, or to sow them together; and 
if the reader will examine the exposition given 
in the Talmud, of this precept respecting the 
grafting of trees, he will find that the punish- 
ment of scourging is every where ordered to be 
inflicted for the transgression of it, because it is 
the foundation of the prohibition or the principal 
thing to which it refers ; but the mingling of 
seeds is forbidden only in the land of Israel. (42) 
In the before-mentioned book, it is also 
stated, that they were accustomed to sow bar- 
ley and dried grapes together, imagining that 
without this union there would not be a good 

* The words of Maimcnides are, — " Oportere, ut cum una 
species in aliam inseritur, surculum inserendum manu suateneat 
formosa qusedam Puella, quam prseternaturali ratione Vir 
quidam vitiet et corrumpat, ipsaque congresses hujus tempore 
plantulam illam arbori infigat." 



LAWS OF MOSES. 215 

vintage. The Law, therefore, forbade the sowing 
of the vineyard with divers seeds; (Detit. xxii. 9;) 
and enjoined that all such mixtures should be 
burnt. For all those rites of the Gentiles which 
they believed to possess particular power and 
influence, were forbidden by the Law, but espe- 
cially those which savoured of idolatry. 

Farther, if we consider their rites and cere- 
monies, respecting agriculture, we shall find 
them paying attention to the planets, especially 
the two great luminaries, and even regulating 
the time of sowing by the rising of the hea- 
venly bodies. Smoke is also to be raised, 
(43) and certain circles to be made according 
to the number of the planets, by him who plants 
or sows. For they teach that all these things 
have a most beneficial influence upon agricul- 
ture, thereby alluring and drawing men to the 
worship of the stars. But on these ordinances 
of the Gentiles the Divine Law has pronounced 
the prohibition, " Ye shall not walk in the man- 
ners of the nations which I cast out before you ; 
for they committed all those things, and there- 
fore I abhorred them :" (Levit. xx. 23.) And 
if any of these were more notorious, or com- 
mon, or manifestly idolatrous than others, it 
has given special and particular injunctions res- 
pecting them, as of the fruits of the first years ; — 
of divers seeds and mixed garments, &c. — I 
cannot, therefore, but wonder at the saying of 
Rabbi Josiah, in which he teaches, that " these 
three, wheat, barley, and dried grapes, may be 



216 REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 

sown together by one throw of the hand," and 
have no doubt but that he had taken it from the 
ways of the Amorites. 

It has thus, therefore, been shown by irre- 
fragable demonstration, that mixed garments, the 
fruits of the first years, and divers kinds of seeds, 
were prohibited on account of idolatry ; and 
lastly, that all the ceremonies of the Gentiles are 
forbidden, because, as we have already shown, 
they lead to idolatry. 



CHAPTER XIII. 



Of the Causes and Reasons of the Precepts of the third Class. 

r PHE precepts comprised under the third head ? 
are those of a Moral and Physical nature. 
The utility of these is evident, because they 
include the doctrines respecting those virtues by 
which civil society itself is preserved; so evi- 
dent indeed, as to render it unnecessary to dwell 
any longer upon it by attempting to demon- 
strate it. — Let it be remembered, however, that 
there are some precepts among them, which 
although they may appear to have no precise 
object, yet may be enjoined in order to acquire 
or produce some virtuous habit. But of the 
greater part of precepts of this class it is clear, 
that they are calculated either to create or to 
preserve laudable and useful habits. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



Of the Causes and Reaso?is of Precepts of the fourth Class. 

npHE precepts comprehended in the fourth 
class, are those noticed in the tracts of Seeds, 
of Slaves, and of Pledges and Loans. 

These, when they are considered distinctly, 
and in order, will be found to have a manifest 
utility, as for instance, that we ought to be 
merciful to the poor and succour them in their 
necessities; — that we ought not to oppress the 
indigent, nor add affliction to the afflicted in 
heart, as widows, orphans, &c. Giving alms to 
the poor, being clearly a duty. 

The reason for the Terumoth, or Oblations 
voluntarily made to the Priests and Levites, and 
the Tythes, is given in the Law when it says, 
" He hath no part or inheritance with thee:" 
(Deut. xiv. 27.) To which may be added, that 
the whole of the tribe of Levi were devoted to 
the service of God and the study of the Law, 
not depending upon tilling or sowing, but being 
set apart for sacred duties, as it is said, " They 
shall teach Jacob thy judgments, and Israel thy 
Law : they shall put incense before thee, and 
whole burnt sacrifice upon thine altar." 
(Deut. xxxiii. 10.) Thus in almost every part 



LAWS OF MOSES. 219 

of the Scriptures we shall find the Levite, the 
Stranger, the Orphan, and the Widow, enumer- 
ated together and compared to the Poor, from 
having no certain possessions. 

The Second Tithes the Law commands to be 
brought in kind and eaten in Jerusalem only, that 
the offerers might be obliged to practise alms- 
giving, by expending what was brought in eating 
and drinking, which might easily be done by 
gradual distribution ; and also, that by assembling 
at one place they might be more firmly cemented 
together by brotherly affection and friendship. 

With respect to the precepts relating to the 
Fruits of the Fourth Year, it may be remarked, 
that, in addition to their tendency to prevent 
idolatry, and partaking of the uncircumcision of 
the Fruits of the three first years, the same reason 
may be adduced for them, as for the Oblations 
(Terumah), Cakes, First-fruits, and First of 
Shearing, of all of which the first-fruits were 
to be consecrated to God, that men might be 
excited to liberality and withdrawn from avarice 
and gluttony. (44) 

Of the same nature also is the injunction, that 
the Shoulder, and the two Cheeks, and the Maw, of 
the ox or the sheep which is offered, shall be given 
to the priest: (Deut. xviii. 3 :) since the two cheeks 
may be considered as the first-fruits of the carcase 
of the animal ; the Right Shoulder as the first of 
branch-like parts of the body ; and the Maw (or 
Stomach) is the chief of all the instestines. 

The law of the First- Fruits also promotes 



220 REASONS OF THE 

Humility : for being obliged to carry their baskets 
ontheirshoulders,(Deut.xxvi,2,)andthuspublicly 
to acknowledge God's blessings, they thereby 
signified that it was a part of Divine Worship^ 
for a man to remember his former affliction 
and tribulation, when God should have given 
them rest ; which is also confirmed by the law in 
many other places, as it is said, " Thou shalt 
remember that thou wast a bondman in Egypt :" 
(Deut. xxiv, 18 :) Since he who is in the enjoy- 
ment of riches and pleasures is in danger of for- 
getting his former state, when he ought to fear 
those evils which so readily spring from 
prosperity, such as pride, and haughtiness, and 
apostacy, and others of a like nature, agreeably 
to the caution, " Lest when thou hast eaten and 
art full, and hast built goodly houses, and dwelt 
therein ; and when thy herds and thy flocks 
multiply, and thy silver and thy gold is multiplied, 
and all that thou hast is multiplied ; then thine 
heart be lifted up, and thou forget the Lord thy 
God, which brought thee forth out of the land 
of Egypt, from the house of bondage :" (Deut. 
viii, 12, 13, 14, 15 :) — and again, " Jeshurum 
waxed fat and kicked." (Deut. xxxii, 15.) It 
is for fear of these evils that it is commanded in 
the Scriptures, to offer the first-fruits every year 
before the Lord and his Divine Majesty: and it 
is well known how forcibly they recall to mind 
the plagues of Egypt ; as, " that thou mayest 
remember the day when thou earnest forth out of 
the land of Egypt :" (Deut. xvi,3)— and, "that 



LAWS OF MOSES. 221 

thou mayest tell in the ears of thy son, and of 
thy son's son, what things I have wrought in 
Egypt :" (Exod. x. 2.) which was peculiarly 
proper to be done on these occasions, because they 
demonstrate the truth of prophecy, as well as of 
rewards and punishments ;for every precept, which 
either recals to our minds the Divine Miracles, or 
establishes our Faith, must be of the greatest 
utility. This is clearly shown by what is said of the 
first-born of man and beast : (Exod. xii i, 14,15 :) 
" It shall be, when thy son asketh thee in time to 
come, saying, What is this ? that thou shalt say 
unto him, By strength of hand the Lord brought 
us out from Egypt, from the house of bondage : 
and it came to pass, when Pharaoh would hardly 
let us go, that the Lord slew all the first-born in 
the land of Egypt, both the first-born of man, and 
the first-born of beast : therefore I sacrifice to the 
Lord all that openeth the matrix, being males :" 
which is evidently spoken of sheep, oxen, and 
asses, because they are domestic animals reared 
by men and to be found everywhere, but 
especially in the land of Israel and among the 
Israelites, — we, and our fathers, and our fathers' 
fathers being shepherds, as it is said, "Thy 
servants are shepherds, both we and also our 
fathers." (Gen. xlvii, 3.) On the contrary, 
horses and camels are not to be found in every 
place and among all people ; therefore when the 
spoiling of the Midianites is noticed, (Num. xxxi,) 
we find no animals mentioned, except sheep, oxen, 
and asses, which are the only ones necessary for 
P 



222 REASONS OF THE 

all men, and especially for those whose occupation 
is in the fields and woods: thus Jacob said, " I 
have oxen, asses, and flocks." (Gen. xxxii, 5.) 
Whereas horses and camels are confined to cer- 
tain countries, and possessed only by a few 
distinguished persons. The neck of the firstling 
of an ass was to be broken, that the owner might 
be induced the more readily to redeem it, 
(Exod. xiii, 13) as it is said, "The command of 
redemption precedes the command of decol- 
lation." 

The precepts enumerated in our tract of the 
year of Redemption (45) and Jubilee (46) are 
given partly in mercy to men in general, and for 
their comfort and rest : " Six years shalt thou 
sow thy land, and shalt gather in the fruits thereof : 
but the seventh year thou shalt let it rest and be 
still : that the poor of thy people may eat ;" 
(Exod. xxiii, 10, 11 ;) and that the land, by being 
thus left untilledand suffered to rest, might become 
more productive -.—partly from special kindness 
to the slaves and the poor by the remission of debts 
and the manumission of slaves : — partly to provide 
for the perpetual support and maintenance of the 
people ; as, for instance, that the land should 
never be sold so as to be utterly alienated from the 
original owners, but remain the property of a 
man and his heirs for ever, — " The land shall not 
be sold for ever." (Exod. xxv, 23.) 

Similar reasons to those already adduced for 
alms-giving, exist also for the precept respecting 
Estimations, (47) and Things devoted to sacred 



LAWS OF MOSES. 223 

purposes. (Levit. xxvii.) For some of them relate 
to the priests, and others of them to the repairing 
and restoring of the House of God; and, in general, 
all of them have a tendency to lead men to 
liberality, and instead of giving place to avarice, to 
contemn riches for the glory of God ; the greater 
part of the evils and misfortunes which happen 
among men, arising from avarice and ambition, 
or too great an eagerness to amass wealth. 

In like manner, if we properly consider the 
precepts relating to Borrowing and Lending, and 
examine them particularly, we shall find them 
all directed to the same point, that mercy, 
beneficence, and clemency may be exercised 
towards the poor, and that no one may be des- 
titute of the necessaries of life, as, " No man shall 
take the nether or the upper millstone to pledge : 
for he taketh a man's life to pledge." (Deut. 
xxiv, 6.) (48) 

The precepts which refer to Servitude and 
Slaves, have also a similar object, the promotion 
of piety and mercy to the poor ; of which it is 
no mean proof, that it was commanded to liberate 
a Canaanitish slave when he had lost any mem- 
ber by ill usage, even if it were but a tooth; 
(Exod. xxi. 26, 27 ;) that he might not be 
afflicted, at the same time, with both slavery 
and such an infirmity or defect. We have also 
shown in the Mishna Thorah, that it was not 
lawful to strike him with any thing but a strap 
or a reed, or some similar instrument ; and that 
if his master struck him with these so as to kill 
p 2 



224 REASONS OF THE 

him, he himself should be punished with death, 
as for another murder. — But when it is said, 
" Thou shalt not deliver unto his master the 
servant, (slave) which is escaped from his master 
unto thee : he shall dwell with thee, even among 
you, in that place which he shall choose in one 
of thy gates, where it liketh him best, thou 
shalt not oppress him :" (Deut. xxiii. 15, 16 :) 
— There is another beneficial result beside the 
act of mercy, which is, that it teaches us to 
accustom ourselves to virtuous and praise-wor- 
thy actions, not only by succouring those who 
have sought our aid and protection, and not 
delivering them into the hands of those from 
whom they have fled, but also by promoting 
their comfort, doing them all manner of kindness, 
and not injuring or grieving them even in word ; 
and if we are bound to exercise these duties 
towards men of the lowest condition, towards 
slaves, how much more must it be our duty to 
exercise them towards persons of superior excel- 
lence and rank who require our assistance, and 
receive them according to their rank and merit ? 
— It should, however, be remarked, that if the 
fugitive or run-away was a man of base and per- 
verse character, no assistance was to be afforded 
him, no mercy to be shown to him, nor any 
part of his punishment to be remitted, (that is, 
not the least favour to be shown him,) although 
he should have sought refuge in the most sacred 
place, as it is said, " Thou shalt take him from 
mine altar that he may die." (Exod. xxi. 14.) 



LAWS OF MOSES. 225 

Where an instance is given of one who seeks 
protection and assistance from God, and betakes 
himself to that which is dedicated to Him ; yet 
no assistance is afforded him, but he is com- 
manded to be surrendered to his adversary: — 
how much less, therefore, must any private 
individual lend assistance to any man of such 
a character, or exercise mercy towards him ? 
For such mercy, when shown to wicked men 
and villains, is tyranny and cruelty to others ; 
and certainly, those actions must be the most 
pleasing to God, which are the most consistent 
with his righteous statutes and judgments ; and 
not those merely which obtain the applause of 
the ignorant and foolish, by whom all are praised 
who indiscriminately receive and protect all that 
come to them without inquiry, whether oppres- 
sor or oppressed, as may be seen and known 
by their books and sayings. (49) The reasons 
of this class are, therefore, as we have shown, 
sufficiently clear and evident. -.. 



CHAPTER XV. 



Of the Causes and Reasons of Precepts of the fifth Class. 

nPHE precepts included in the fifth class, all 
relate to the punishment and prevention of 
Damages and Injuries. 

The prohibitions of these are frequent in the 
Law, and prove that a man is considered as 
guilty of all those damages or injuries which 
are occasioned by his property or goods, so far 
as they might have been prevented by a proper 
precaution on his part ; hence the blame attaches 
to us of all the damages done by our cattle, 
because we either do or may watch them care- 
fully; and in like manner those which occur 
from fire, and cisterns or wells of water, because 
men have it in their power to guard them, and 
prevent the danger arising from them. (50) 

There are, however, certain distinctions to 
be observed in relation to these precepts, agree- 
ably to justice and equity, which shall be 
explained. Thus, when injury is suffered from 
the teeth or feet, (i. e. of cattle) in a public place, 
the owner is acquitted, because the teeth and 
feet are things which he has not power to guard, 
and the damage which is sustained is, in most 
cases, but small ; to which may be added, that 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 227 

he who leaves any thing in a public place, 
injures himself by exposing his property to des- 
truction ; and that the owner of cattle is 
accountable for damages done in the field by 
the tooth and foot. — But if the damage done in 
a public place be caused by a horn or any 
thing similar which might have been guarded, 
and from which persons travelling cannot save 
themselves, the law and judgment is the same 
in every place. Yet there is a difference 
between a quiet ox, (that is, a gentle one, not 
known to push with its horns,) and a furious ox, 
(that is, one which its keeper knew was accus- 
tomed to push with its horns ;) (Exod. xxi. 
29, 35, 36 ;) for if the damage be done by the 
one not used to push with its horns, then the 
owner is obliged to make good only half the 
damage ; but if it be done by the one accus- 
tomed and known to do so, the owner is bound 
to make good the whole damage. The fine 
appointed in this case, for the injury done to a 
slave, is thirty shekels of silver, or half the 
price of a freeman ; freemen being usually esti- 
mated at sixty shekels of silver, and a slave at 
thirty. (51) The reason why the beast is to be 
slain, is to punish the owner, and not, as the Sad- 
ducees absurdly cavil, to punish the beast ; and 
the flesh of it was forbidden to be eaten, that he 
might be induced to take particular care of it, 
knowing that if it killed any one, whether great 
or small, bond or free, he must lose the value of 
it ; and that if it had been known to be accus- 



228 REASONS OF THE 

tomed to push or toss with its horns, he would, 
beside the loss of the beast, have to pay the 
estimated sum for the injury. For the same 
reason also it is commanded, that the beast with 
which any man lieth shall be slain, (Lev. xx, 15,) 
that the owner of it may watch over it with the 
same care and diligence as his other domestics, 
nor readily suffer it to be from under his eye ; for 
men commonly pursue riches with an ardor and 
attachment equal to that which they feel for their 
own souls, and some are more careful of their 
wealth than of themselves ; but with the greater 
part, the love of property and of life are equal, 
as it is said, " To take us for bondmen and our 
asses." (Gen. xliii, 18.) 

To this class of precepts also belongs the case 
of Slaying the Pursuer, that is, of him who pur- 
sues another in order to perpetrate some act of 
wickedness. But, the judgment that he may be 
put to death who intends or attempts to commit 
a crime without effecting his purpose, is only per- 
mitted in two cases, First, when any one pursues 
his neighbour with a design to murder him ; and 
Secondly, when any one pursues another with 
the intention to commit an act of impurity, since 
these are injuries, which, if once sustained, can 
never be remedied. — With respect to certain 
other crimes, forbidden by the House of Judg- 
ment under pain of death, as idolatry and the 
violation of the sabbath, by which no one is 
injured, the mind alone being conscious of them, 
the punishment of death is not inflicted on account 



LAWS OF MOSES. 229 

of the intention, unless there be an actual com- 
mission of them. It may also be remarked, that 
concupiscence is forbidden, because it induces 
desire, and desire leads to rapine, as our wise men 
have explained it. 

The reason why things lost are commanded to 
be restored, (Lev. vi, 4,) is clear; for, independ- 
ently of honesty being praiseworthy, it has great 
reciprocal utility ; for if we do not restore that 
which another has lost and we have found, neither 
will he restore to us our things ; in the same way 
that if we honour not our fathers, neither will our 
sons honour us. (52) 

The Manslayer who killeth another person una- 
wares, is commanded to flee from his ownplaee, [to 
the city of refuge,] (Numb. xxxv,ll,) in order to 
pacify the avenger of blood, and to prevent his 
having him constantly in his sight who had com- 
mitted the offence : and the return of the man- 
slayer to his own city depended upon the death 
of the High Priest, the dearest and most excel- 
lent person in all Israel, that by this means also 
the mind of the person might be appeased whose 
relative had been killed ; for it is natural to all 
men in affliction, and implanted in their very 
constitutions, to find comfort from seeing others 
in similar or greater sufferings ; and no death can 
possibly happen more afflictive in its nature than 
that of the High-Priest. (53) 

The utility of the precept respecting the 
beheading oj the heifer, (Deut. xxi, 1 — 9,) is also 
evident : for the city bringing the heifer, is that 



230 RASONS OF THE 

which is nearest to the body of the man who has 
been murdered, and it most frequently happens 
that the murderer is from that place. Then the 
elders of the city call God to witness, that they 
have neglected nothing that was necessary for the 
security and guarding of the ways, and had 
diligently examined and searched all travellers, 
saying, as our Rabbins have expressed it ; " This 
man was not killed through our negligence or 
forgetfulness of any of our common and public 
constitutions ; nor do we know who killed him." 
Now by this enquiry into the deed, by the going 
forth and protestation of the elders, and by the 
taking and striking off the heifer's head, a great 
deal of conversation took place about the affair 
and gave publicity to it, by which means either 
the murderer probably was found out, or was dis- 
covered by some one who had been privy to the 
murder, or had overheard something respecting 
it ; or it became known by certain signs and indi- 
cations that such an one was the murderer ; but 
if any man or woman rose and said, Such an one 
committed the murder, the heifer was not 
beheaded ; and as it was well known that if any 
one knew the author of the murder and concealed 
it, calling upon God as a witness and avenger that 
he knew him not, it would be the greatest folly 
and sin, it was rendered highly probable that if 
any one knew the murderer he would be detected; 
and the detection of him would be important ; 
for if the House of Judgment did not put him to 
death, the king had power to order his execution, 



LAWS OF MOSES. 231 

on evidence being given against him, and if the 
king did not cause him to suffer, then the avenger 
of blood might do it by lying in wait for him. — 
It must therefore be acknowledged, that the 
beheading of the heifer was of use in the dis- 
closure and discovery of murder. This was also 
farther promoted by the circumstance, that the 
place where the heifer was beheaded might never 
again be ploughed or sowed, which was done, 
that the owner of the land might use every effort, 
and neglect nothing to detect and apprehend the 
murderer, that the heifer might not be slain and 
the land be polluted for ever. (54.) 



CHAPTER XVI. 



Of the Causes and Reasons qf Precepts of the Sixth Class. 

npHE sixth class of precepts treats of the Punish- 
ments and Mulcts of criminals and different 
delinquents.— The utility of these, in general, is 
well known, and has been already intimated; 
but the design of the present chapter is to 
notice the particulars of them, and show their 
justice and equity. 

The general punishment for an injury done 
by one man to another, was, that what he had 
done to another should be done to himself ; thus, 
if he had wounded his body, his own body must 
suffer; — if he had taken his money, his own 
money must repay him ; (55) — though, in most 
cases, it was in the power of the injured party 
to pardon the offender or remit the punishment, 
if he thought proper. In the case, however, of 
murder committed from malice aforethought, 
the punishment could neither be remitted, nor 
any compensation be accepted in its stead, as it 
is said, (Numb. xxxv. 33.) " The land cannot 
be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but 
by the blood of him that shed it." — And although 
the man who had been mortally wounded, might 
live some hours or days, and retain his speech 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 233 

and understanding, and request that his mur- 
derer might be liberated, declaring that he had 
freely forgiven him ; his request was not to be 
granted, but life was to go for life, whether 
small or great, bond or free, wise or foolish ; for 
no greater crime than this can ever be committed. 
In like manner also, if any one mutilated the 
limb of another, he was himself to be mutilated ; 
in a word, whatever injury any man did to his 
neighbour, was to be retaliated on himself. As 
to the pecuniary mulcts now substituted for 
these punishments, there is no need to weary 
the mind by attempting to discover the cause of 
them, since it is not my intention, in this work, 
to assign reasons for the decisions of the Talmud , 
(though I might have somewhat to say respe ct- 
ing the Talmudical sentences,) but to account 
for the precepts of the Scriptures. 

When the nature of the injuries prevented 
retaliation, the law enjoined recompense, and 
the offender was obliged to pay for the loss of 
time and the cure of wounds which he had 
occasioned. (Exod. xxi. 19.) (56) 

If any one committed a trespass on the pro- 
perty of another, he was condemned to suffer 
an equal loss of his own property ; as it is said, 
(Exod. xxii. 9.) " Whom the judges shall con- 
demn, he shall pay double unto his neighbour ;" 
that is, what he had purloined, and as much 
more. (57) 

Let it also be remarked, that those crimes 
which are most easily effected, and of most fre- 



234 REASONS OF THE 

quent occurrence, ought to be punished more 
heavily and severely than those which more 
rarely occur, in order more powerfully to res- 
train men from committing them. Hence, he 
who had stolen a sheep, (Exod. xxii. 1,) was 
obliged to restore twice as much as he who had 
stolen any other moveable, that is, fourfold, and 
that whether he had killed it or sold it ; the 
reason of which is, that being generally in the 
fields, where they cannot be so readily watched 
as in the city, those who steal them either hasten 
to sell them that they may not be found in their 
possession, or to kill them that they may be so 
altered in form as not to be recognized. But if 
an ox were stolen, the restitution was increased 
to fivefold, because it was more liable to be 
stolen; for sheep being fed in flocks might be 
easily watched and guarded by the shepherd, 
and could scarcely be carried off except during 
the night, whereas, oxen being dispersed and 
feeding in different places, could not be so easily 
defended, and this was the reason why they 
were more frequently stolen. (58) 

Thus also, the law respecting " False Wit- 
nesses," (Deut. xix. 19,) decided that " it should 
be done unto them as they had thought to have 
done unto their brethren ;" if they had intended 
to procure their death, they themselves were to 
be put to death ; if they had thought to smite 
them, they were to be smitten ; or, if they had 
designed to deprive them of money, they were to 
forfeit a sum equivalent. (59) 



LAWS OF MOSES. 235 

In all these cases it is intended to proportion the 
punishment to the crime, and therefore these 
laws are called " Righteous or Just Judg- 
ments." 

The reason why the robber, or he " who look 
any thing from his neighbour by violence or fraud ^ 
(Levit. vi. 2, 5,) was obliged merely to restore 
the principal, (for the fifth part, which was to 
be added to what had been taken, was to expi- 
ate the false oath,) was, because of its infre- 
quency ; for theft was more frequent than rob- 
bery, since the former might be committed any 
where, but the latter not in a city without 
very great difficulty; besides which, theft may 
be committed either secretly or openly, but 
robbery only openly; every one, also, may 
guard against a robber and resist him, which 
he cannot do against a thief ; and lastly, a robber 
is known and may be pursued, and exertions 
used to recover the things of which persons 
have been robbed, whilst a thief is unknown ; 
on these accounts, therefore, a thief was fined, 
but a robber was not. (60) 

The punishments inflicted were also greater 
or less, severer or lighter, in proportion to the 
crime, and were regulated by the four follow- 
ing considerations: — 

First, the Magnitude of the Crime ; for those 
actions which cause the greatest injury, deserve 
the heaviest punishment; but where the injury 
is small, the punishment should be light. 

Secondly, the Frequency of the Crime ; for 



236 REASONS OF THE 

what is more frequently committed, must be 
restrained by severer punishment; whilst that 
which more rarely occurs, may be checked by 
more moderate infliction. 

Thirdly: 7 he Temptation to commit the crime; 
since it is certain, that no one will be deterred 
from that to which he is powerfully impelled, 
whether it be by the too great violence of his 
passions, or by habit and custom, or by the fear 
of the trouble which the omission of it would 
occasion, but by the fear of the severest punish- 
ment. 

Fourthly; The Facility of the Crime; as 
whether it could be committed in secret and 
without being observed, and without being dis- 
covered or known ; for such crimes can only be 
prevented by the infliction of heavy punishments. 

After premising these things, it is further to be 
observed that the Law includes four degrees of 
punishment; the first is, Death, inflicted on those 
adjudged guilty by the House of Judgment : (61) 
the second, is Excision or Cutting off and Scourg- 
ing with the Thong, when the sin is believed to 
be very great : the third is, Scourging with the 
Thong, or Death by the hand of God, when the 
crime is of a negative kind and not considered as 
of a very grievous nature : the fourth is, Pro- 
hibition without scourging, and relates to all those 
negative precepts in which no action is included, 
except those which respect him who swears 
rashly or falsely, who will not believe what 
ought to be believed of magnifying God, who 



LAWS OF MOSES. 237 

refuses to offer the offerings to God, or who 
reproachfully curses his neighbour by the 
Name of God, since the common people regard 
curses and reproaches as greater evils than bodily 
injuries; — for the injuries arising from the rest of 
the negative precepts, unaccompanied by any 
action, are very small, and, consisting of words 
only, are not easily avoided ; so that if they were 
prohibited under the pain of being scourged, no 
man's back would be free from wounds during 
the whole year; and therefore no punishment is 
assigned but admonition. 

In directing the number of stripes which are 
to be inflicted in certain cases, wisdom and 
discretion must be used. For although the law 
is precise and definite as to the greatest number 
ever to be ordered, it is not so as to individuals 
and particular cases, because no one must have 
more than he can bear, and the number must 
never exceed forty, even though he were able to 
bear a hundred. 

The punishment of Death by the House of Judg- 
ment was not annexed to Forbidden Meats, because 
no great evil arose from eating them, nor 
was any one so violently tempted to them, as to 
inchastity and similar crimes : Yet, Excision was 
denounced against some of them ; as, the Eating 
of Blood, (Levit. vii. 26, 27,) because in those 
times men were too apt to be led into a desire and 
precipitancy of eating it by a certain kind of 
idolatry, which was the chief cause why it was 
?o strictly forbidden. 

Q 



238 REASONS OF THE 

The Eating of Fat likewise was liable to the same 
punishment, (Levit. vii, 23 — 25,) because men 
are generally fond of it, and also because it was 
the will of God that it should be appropriated to 
his sacrifices on that very account. — Excision was 
also annexed to the Eating of Leaven at the Pass- 
over, and to the Eating of any thing on the day 
of the Fast or Expiation, which was a day of 
grief and sadness : because on those days the acts 
were performed which confirm those opinions on 
which the law is founded, as the Deliverance out 
of Egypt and the Miracles which accompanied 
it, and the Belief of the necessity of Conversion 
or Repentance, as it is said, (Levit. xxiii, 28.) 
" It is a day of Atonement (Expiation,) to make 
an atonement for you before the Lord your God." 
—He also was exposed to Excision who ate that 
which was remaining of the Peace-Offering on the 
third day ; (Levit. xix, 5 — 8 ;) and he, who being 
Unclean ate of the flesh of the sacrifice of Peace- 
Offerings, (Levit. vii, 21,) was ranked with him 
who had eaten Fat ; the design of these sanctions 
being to increase the feeling of reverence in 
offering up sacrifices. — But Death by the House o/- 
Judgment was annexed only to great and daring 
sins, as for instance, Corruption of the faith or 
Heresy, Idolatry, Adultery, Incest, Murder, or 
whatever might induce the commission of them • 
and to the Profanation of the Sabbath, because by 
the Sabbath, the belief of the creation of the 
world is established. Similar punishment was 
likewise inflicted upon the False Prophet, (Deut. 



LAWS OF MOSES. 239 

xiii, 1 — 5; xviii, 20,) and the Despiser of the Elders, 
(Deut. xvii, 12,) because of the great evils which 
their conduct might occasion ; as it was also upon 
him who smote his Father or Mother, or cursed 
them, (Exod. xxi, 15; Levit. xx, 9,) since these 
were proofs of desperate and shameless depravity, 
and subversive of all domestic order, which is not 
an inferior but a primary part of Civil Govern- 
ment. It was especially denounced against the 
stubborn and rebellious Son, (Deut. xxi, 18 — 21,) on 
account of the fatal consequences that would 
certainly follow ; for it was more than probable, 
that, growing worse and worse, he would at length 
become a murderer. He who kidnapped or stole a 
man (Deut. xxiv,7) was liable to the same con- 
demnation, because it was presumed that he who 
was stolen was carried off to be slain ; and he who 
was found breaking up, (Exod. xxii, 2,) because, as 
our Rabbins explain it, he was thought to enter 
with an intention to murder some one. It is there- 
fore clear, that these three, the Rebellious Son, the 
Thief breaking up, and the Kidnapper, were 
regarded as Murderers.— In a word, Death by the 
House of Judgment was never inflicted but for 
great and grievous crimes ; for, even in cases of 
inchastity, only those instances were thus 
punished which were most easily effected, or were 
the most frequent, base and shameful, and to which 
there was the greatest temptation : whilst others 
were restrained by Excision. Neither were 
all kinds of Idolatry subject to this punishment, 
q2 



240 REASONS OF THE 

but only the more principal ones, as the man 
who prayed to an idol, — who prophesied in its 
Name ; — or who caused his children to pass through 
the fire ; — the Augur ;— the Python ; — and the 
Enchanter. 

Punishments and Judgments being thus 
evidently necessary, it is requisite that there 
should be Judges appointed in every city ; that 
there should be Witnesses ; and that there should 
be a King who should be venerated, who should 
forbid and by every means restrain these things, 
and who should lend his aid to the Judges and 
afford them countenance. 

We have now exhibited the causes and reasons 
of the precepts enumerated in our treatise entitled, 
cptosity (Shophetim) or " Of Judges;" it remains 
for us to advert to a few things noticed in that 
work, connected with the precepts of this class. 
We observe, therefore, that since God knew the 
judgments of the law would be always necessary, 
and that at different times and in divers places 
and from various causes and reasons, as well as 
from a variety of occurrences, men would be 
induced to add to them or to take from them, he 
forbade them doing it, saying, (Deut. iv 2,) " Ye 
shall not add unto the word which I command 
you, neither shall ye diminish ought from it;" 
for to do this would be greatly to the prejudice of 
the law, which might thereby seem not to derive 
its origin from God. But during the whole time 
and age of the Wise- Men, (i. e. of the Great 
Synagogue, or House of Judgment,) he per- 



LAWS OF MOSES. 241 

mitted them to form Hedges whereby the 
judgments of the Law might be regulated in 
certain cases, wherein men might be inclined to 
alter it, that the Law itself might be confirmed, 
and the Hedges be rendered lasting in their obli- 
gation, as it is said, " Make a Hedge for the 
Law." He also granted them the power of sus- 
pending certain precepts of the Law, and in some 
cases and with respect to some things of per- 
mitting what was forbidden, but these were only 
temporary in their duration. 

By this means the Law may be preserved, and 
established, and yet be suited to all times and cases 
according to existing necessities; but if that 
special exception had been conceded to every 
Wise-Man, men might have perished through 
the diversity and multitude of opinions; God 
therefore forbade that any Wise-Man, except 
those of the Great Synagogue unitedly, should 
exercise this power ; but commanded that who- 
ever should oppose their united decisions should 
be put to death; (Deut. xvii, 12;) for the design 
and end of them would be lost, if every one who 
chose might dissent from them and disobey them. 

It should also be remarked, that Criminal 
Actions are divided into four classes, some being 
involuntary and only committed by Constraint; 
others through Error ; some through Pride ; and 
others with a High Hand, that is frowardly and 
obstinately. 

No punishment was inflicted on him that 
transgressed through Constraint, nor was any 



242 REASONS OF THE 

guilt imputed to him, as God himself has said, 
(Deut. xxii,) " Unto the damsel thou shalt do 
nothing ; there is in the damsel nothing worthy 
of death." But he who transgressed through 
Error was accounted a sinner, because if he had 
diligently and constantly watched, he would not 
have fallen into error ; so that although no actual 
punishment fell upon him, yet there was need of 
an atonement, and he was, therefore, obliged to 
offer an oblation. The Law, however, makes a 
distinction, betwixt a man of celebrity or a man 
of learning, and a private illiterate character ; 
betwixt the King and the High-Priest, or a man 
who delivers a Halacah or Legal Decision ; and 
declares that, whoever gives or teaches a Halacah 
or Legal decision according to his own under- 
standing, unless he be of the Great Synagogue or 
House of Judgment, or the High-Priest, is to be 
ranked with those who sin through Pride, and not 
with those who sin through Error. Hence the 
rebellious elder was to be punished with Death, 
although what he had done and taught might 
appear to himself to be right. But the Great 
Synagogue, or House of Judgment, had the 
right of judging according to its own views; 
and if the members of it erred, they were classed 
among those who transgressed through igno- 
rance, as it is said, (Lev. iv. 13,) " If the whole 
Congregation of Israel sin through igno- 
rance: ." On this ground the Rabbins 

have said, " Ignorance in doctrine is accounted 
Pride ;" that is, if any one, who is delicient in 



LAWS OF MOSES. 243 

knowledge, teaches and acts according to his 
ignorance and unskilfulness, he is considered as 
proud; and a different judgment will be formed 
of him from that which will be formed of him 
who eats the fat of the kidneys supposing that 
he is eating the fat of the tail, — or that eats the 
fat of the kidneys knowing it to be such, but 
ignorant that the fat of the kidneys is forbidden : 
for although the latter may be regarded as nearly 
allied to the proud, on account of their trans- 
gression, though it was only in the act, and they 
may therefore offer an oblation ; no doubt what- 
ever can exist as to him who ignorantly and 
daringly teaches according to his own will or 
understanding, since the scripture no where libe- 
rates or excuses any one for ignorance in doctrine, 
except the members of the Great Synagogue or 
House of Judgment. (63) 

He who sinned through Pride was subject to 
the Written Judgment or Punishment written in 
the Law, whether it was to death by the Great 
Council, or to scourging, or to the chastisement 
of the negative precepts where scourging 
was not enjoined, or to a pecuniary fine ; and 
although there were certain cases in which 
offences were equally punished, whether com- 
mitted through ignorance or from pride, yet it 
was only in those instances which were of fre- 
quent occurrence, or might be committed with 
great facility, or which were only in word and 
not in act, such as the oaths of witnesses, the 
oaths respecting the pledges; to which may be 



244 REASONS OF THE 

added the violation of a betrothed bond-maid, 
(Lev. xx, 20,) which frequently occurs, such an 
one being greatly exposed, since she is neither a 
mere bond-woman, nor absolutely a free woman, 
nor really and truly the wife of any man, as 
the Cabala explains this precept. 

Finally, he who sins with a High Hand (64) is 
the proud man who is become hardened in sin, 
and sins publicly and without restraint ; for such 
an one not only transgresses the Law through 
concupiscence and the natural depravity of his 
nature, but in open violation of the Law, and with 
the intention of treating it with contempt : where- 
fore it is said, (Num. xv, 30,,) " He reproacheth 
the Lord :" and was therefore, beyond all doubt, 
to be punished with death ; for no one would thus 
sin, but he whose principles or opinions differed 
from the Divine law, and were directly opposed 
to it. Hence the common and received exposition 
of this law is, that the Scripture speaks of idola- 
try, because it is opposed to the first and principal 
foundations of the law, no one worshipping a star 
or planet but he who believes in its antiquity or 
eternity. In our judgment, every other trans- 
gression also, frowardly committed against the 
Law, originates in the same cause, and that even 
when an Israelite only eats flesh with milk, or 
clothes himself with mixed garments, or rounds 
the corners of his head, it is done from contempt 
of the law, and discovers his disbelief of it ; and 
this we conceive is the meaning of its being said, 
(Num. xv, 30,) " He reproacheth the Lord." — 



LAWS OF MOSES. 



245 



A criminal of this description was condemned to 
suffer the death of denial, (that is, as an heretic 
or apostate who had denied the faith,) not the 
death of punishment, as the citizens of a city 
enticed to idolatry (Deut. xiii, 13 — 17) were slain as 
heretics and apostates, and their goods burned, 
and not left to their heirs like those of others 
who were put to death by the House of Judg- 
ment. If, therefore, any assembly or congrega- 
tion of Israelites transgressed any precept 
through pride, and with a high hand, the whole 
of them were to be slain ; of which we have proof 
in the history of the sons of Gad and Reuben, 
(Joshua xxii,) where it is related, (v. 12,) first, 
" That the whole congregation of the children of 
Israel gathered themselves together — to go up to 
war against them :" and then, that they solemnly 
expostulated with them for having become 
apostates by having unanimously consented to 
an act of transgression, and thereby openly for- 
saken the Law of God, which is what is intended 
by saying, (v. 16,) " What trespass is this ye have 
committed against the God of Israel, to turn away 
this day from following the Lord V And&econdly, 
that the Reubenites answered and retorted upon 
the accusers, (v. 22,) " The Lord God of gods, 
the Lord God of gods, he knoweth, and Israel 
he shall know, if it be in rebellion, or if in 
transgression against the Lord." The reader 
therefore may now understand, from what has 
been advanced, the general principles of the 



246 REASONS OF THE 

mulcts and punishments which have been 
mentioned. 

Again, among the other precepts contained in 
the book concerning " Judges," is that of " blotting 
out the remembrance of Amalek from under 
heaven." (Deut. xxv, 19.) For by the same 
reason that one man is punished separately, a 
whole family or nation may be punished 
collectively, that other families or nations, seeing 
or hearing of the punishment, may escape the 
same sins and judgments ; since they will say to 
themselves : — " Perhaps that may befal us which 
befel such a family ; or perhaps that may happen 
to us which we are about to do to them ;" so that 
if any reprobate and base person should rise up 
amongst them, who has no concern for his own 
life or welfare, and is regardless of the crime he 
is going to commit, he may not be able easily to 
find in his own family any patron who will 
countenance his evil conduct. Thus, of Amalek, 
Who was the first to attack the Israelites with 
the sword, it is said, (Exod. xvii, 14,) " I will 
utterly put out the remembrance of Amalek from 
under heaven." So also against Ammon and 
Moab, who were actuated by avarice in L their 
conduct, and attempted to bring evil upon 
us by subtilty, judgment was denounced, by 
enjoining us to avoid all affinity with them, and 
forbidding us " to seek their peace or prosperity 
for ever." (Deut. xxiii, 3 — 6.) All these things 
having a divine measure and proportion of 



LAWS OF MOSES. 247 

punishment, to which nothing is to be added, and 
from which nothing is to be taken away; but as 
God himself explains it, to be rendered to every 
man "according to his fault." (Deut. xxv, 2.) 

To the same book (or division of the law) 
belongs the precept of appointing a place and 
paddle without the camp, (Deut. xxiii, 12 — 14,) for 
concealing the necessities of nature. The first 
intention of which was cleanliness, and the avoid- 
ing of all filth and impurity that might render man 
like the brute beasts ; whilst it was also further 
designed by these injunctions to confirm the 
confidence of the Israelites in the Divine Majesty 
dwelling among them in the time of war, as is 
said in the reason assigned for this precept: 
(Deut. xxiii, 14:) "For the Lord thy God 
walketh in the midst of thy camp, to deliver thee, 
and to give up thine enemies before thee ;" and 
to which this exhortation is added, " Therefore, 
shall thy camp be holy ; that he see no unclean 
thing in thee, and turn away from thee." (v. 14th.) 
God designing thereby to deter and dehort from 
fornication, which is but too common and 
frequent among soldiers when long absent from 
home. In order, therefore, that we might be 
delivered and abstain from all such impure 
actions, God enjoined those acts which served to 
remind us that his glory dwelt in the midst of us, 
saying, " Thy camp shall be holy, that he see no 
unclean thing in thee ;" and also commanded, 
(v. 10, ll r ) "If there be among you any man 
that is not clean by reason of uncleanness that 



248 REASONS OF THE 

chanceth him by night, then shall he go abroad 
out of the camp, he shall not come within the 
camp : but it shall be, when evening cometh on, 
he shall wash himself with water : and when the 
sun is down, he shall come into the camp again." 
This was done, that it might be firmly settled in 
the mind of every one, that their camps ought to 
be like the Sanctuary of God, and not like 
those of the Gentiles, in which every kind of 
corruption, transgression, rapine, theft, and 
wickedness, was suffered to grow freely. But 
my design is to direct men to the worship of 
God, and exhibit the reasons of it ; and, as I have 
already stated, the causes and reasons which I 
shall adduce shall be such only, as may be found 
in the Scriptures. 

In fine, to this class belongs the judgment 
respecting the beautiful female captive, (Deut. 
xx, 10 — 14,) of which our wise men say, 
This Law speaks only of concupiscence. But the 
reader ought, nevertheless, to be reminded, that 
this precept includes something relating to those 
virtuous and moral actions which all good men 
ought to practise. For, even if evil concupis- 
cence gained such an ascendancy over a man, 
that he could neither conquer nor restrain it, still 
he was forbidden to yield to it in public, and com- 
manded to seek privacy and retirement, since it 
is said, "Thou shalt bring her home to thine 
house." Neither was it permitted to enjoy the 
captive female a second time, either during the 
war, or before her grief and sorrow had subsided ; 



LAWS OF MOSES. 249 

nor was she to be prevented from mourning, 
weeping, and washing, as it is enjoined, "■ She shall 
bewail her father and mother ;" for, by those who 
are in distress, tears are preferred to rest and 
recreation, until the bodily strength being 
evidently weakened, the person becomes in- 
capable of sustaining an exertion of the mind, 
like as those who are elated with joy pre- 
fer laughter to quietness. It is therefore clear, 
that it is the design of the law to exercise 
clemency towards the captive, by allowing her 
to express her grief in every way, until she 
became languid and weary, and ceased to mourn 
and grieve. Let it, however, be remarked, that 
her captor dared not enjoy her, except during 
her continuance in Gentilism ; and that for 
thirty days she might retain her own law and 
religion, although it were idolatry, and no one 
was suffered to contradict or molest her : And 
even if he could not induce her to embrace the 
rites and customs of the Law, he could neither 
sell her, nor use her as his slave. From all these 
circumstances, it is, therefore, manifest that the 
Law prohibited carnal access, notwithstanding 
she might continue in rebellion, that is, a Gentile 
and a Pagan, as it is said, " Thou shalt not make 
merchandise of her, because thou hast humbled 
her. 1 ' (65) 



CHAPTER XVII. 



Of the Causes and Reasons of Precepts of the Seventh Class. 

PyHE precepts of the seventh class are those 
which respect Pecuniary Judgments. 

The reasons of these are evident ; for they are, 
as it were, the measures of equitable decisions 
in the business and contracts usual among men ; 
and designed to promote the mutual advantage 
of merchants and contractors, so that neither 
party may be profited solely, but each be bene- 
fited by the other. 

The primary rule is, that no fraud shall be 
committed in selling, but that the gain shall be 
usual, common, and known ; that the condi- 
tions of sale shall be duly observed, and that 
no fraud nor deception whatever shall be prac- 
tised, even in word. 

The next precepts of the same class, are those 
which relate to the four keepers : [i. e. of goods 
deposited, borrowed, hired, or pledged,] (Exod. 
xxii. 7 — 15;) and of which also the reasons are 
evident. For he who gratuitously takes care of 
any thing from which he derives no advantage 
himself, but benefits others, is not liable to any 
loss, but the injury which happens must be 
borne by the owner of the goods ; but he who 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES, 251 

requests to have goods in charge in order to 
derive benefit from the care of them, or to 
whom the owner gives a remuneration, 
becomes surety for all, and from his purse every 
loss must be made good ; and when he who 
gives and he who receives the remuneration, 
mutually share the profit, they must jointly bear 
the loss. If the damage be occasioned by the 
negligence of the person intrusted, as when that 
which was committed to his care, is stolen or 
lost, then he must repay it, because he did not 
take proper care of what was committed to his 
charge ; but if the injury sustained be such as 
he could not have prevented by foresight, care, 
or diligence, as when the limbs of sheep or 
cattle are broken, or when sheep, <fcc. are carried 
off or die, the loss must be borne by the owner 
himself. 

The law also manifests the greatest attention 
to the case of hired servants, on account of their 
poverty, (Deut. xxiv. 14, 15,) enjoining their 
w T ages to be punctually and fully paid them, 
without any fraud or violence exercised towards 
them, and that their wages shall be proportioned 
to their labour. From the same true principle of 
mercy likewise proceeds the injunction, that 
neither hired servants, nor even cattle, shall be 
prevented from eating of the food about which 
they are employed. (Deut. xxv. 4.) (66*) 

In the class of " Pecuniary Judgments," 
those respecting Inheritances must be specially 
noticed ; concerning which it is commanded, 



252 REASONS OF THE 

(Numb, xxvii. 8 — 11) that no one shall deprive 
another of the estate which belongs to him by 
right, nor, when he dies, refuse it to his heirs, 
nor dissipate, nor disperse it, but leave it to 
those to whom it is most proper to bequeath it, 
namely, to those who are nearest akin (to the 
original proprietor.) Hence, the order to be 
observed respecting it, is particularly pointed 
out ; for a son takes the precedency, then a 
daughter, after that a brother, then, as is well 
known, his father's brothers. The right of 
primogeniture is also to be given to the eldest 
son, because of the priority of love to him ; (67) 
nor must a husband indulge his affections by 
transferring the right to another son by a more 
beloved wife. This virtue so equitable, that 
we ought to prefer those who are most nearly 
related to us, and be the readiest to do them 
good, is every where recommended and con- 
firmed by the Law; hence, the Prophet says, 
" He that is cruel troubleth his own flesh." 
(i. e. his relatives.) (Prov. xi. 17.) Thus, 
also, the Law speaks of alms-giving; " Thou 
shalt open thine hand wide unto thy brother, 
to thy poor, and to thy needy, in thy land :" 
(Deut. xv. 11:) — and our Wise Men exceed- 
ingly commend him who does good to his 
relatives, and provides for his sister's daugh- 
ter; and how far we ought to go in this duty, 
and how highly it ought to be commended by 
us, our Law sufficiently informs us, whilst it 
inculcates upon us the obligation of regarding 



LAWS OF MOSES, 253 

our relatives and kindred notwithstanding they 
may offend us, and not to turn away our benig- 
nant countenance from them, even if any of 
them should be of the vilest and most depraved 
character, as it is said, (Deut. xxiii. 7,) " Thou 
shalt not abhor an Edomite, for he is thy bro- 
ther." How often soever, therefore, or when- 
soever we find a person to whose bounty we 
have been indebted, or from whom we have for- 
merly received a favour, we are bound to 
remember him, because he formerly aided us, 
although since that time he may have done us 
injury ; thus God hath said, (Deut. xxiii. 7,) 
" Thou shalt not abhor an Egyptian, because 
thou wast a stranger in his land ;" though, it is 
well known how much evil the Egyptians did 
to us afterwards. 

We see, therefore, how many excellent and 
laudable actions may be learned from these pre- 
cepts : the two last, indeed, do not properly 
belong to this place, but we have been led into 
the digression respecting the Edomite and 
Egyptian, by what was said concerning the here- 
ditary right of relatives. 



R 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



Of the Causes and Reasons of Precepts of (he eighth Class. 

HPHE precepts comprehended in the eighth' 
class, are those which are enumerated in 
our Talmudical tract " Of Times/' and the 
reasons of which, except in a few instances, are 
given in the Law itself. 

The cause of the institution of the Sabbath is 
so well known, as to need no explanation ; it is 
evidently designed to procure rest for man, by 
providing that a seventh part of his life shall be 
free from labour and fatigue, of which no one, 
either rich or poor shall be deprived : to which 
may be added, that it most powerfully confirms 
and perpetuates the doctrine and history of the 
creation of the world. (68) 

The reason of the Fast of the day of Expiation, 
(Levit. xvi. 29 — 34,) is also clear. It excites 
repentance, and is likewise held on the day on 
which Moses, the prince of prophets, came down 
from the Mount with the second tables, and 
announced to the people the forgiveness of their 
great transgression : hence, it is chosen to be, for 
ever, a day wholly devoted to repentance and 
divine worship; and therefore every corporeal 
pleasure and all bodily labour and fatigue are 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 255 

forbidden on that day, and the whole of it is to 
be spent in confessing and forsaking sin. 

The other Festival Days were appointed gene- 
rally for purposes of joy, and because such pub- 
lic assemblies promote that union and affection 
which are necessarily required under all civil 
and political governments ; although the pecu- 
liar and proper circumstances of those days had 
their a distinct causes. (69) 

Thus, in what relates to the Feast of the Pass- 
over, the reason is manifest why it was to be cele- 
brated for seven days, which is, because the 
circumaction or revolution of seven days is 
the mediate circumvolution between a solar 
day and a lunar month, which, it is well known, 
is of great use, not only in natural things, but 
also in legal ones. (70) For the law is con- 
stantly assimilated to nature, and nature is in 
some sort perfected by it ; for nature possesses 
neither reason nor understanding, but the law 
is, as it were, the rule and guide of the Most 
High God, who hath imparted understanding 
to those who are endued with it. — These things, 
however, are not within the scope of this chap- 
ter, and, therefore, we will resume our former 
subject. 

The Feast of Weeks, (i. e. Pentecost,) was 
celebrated in commemoration of the day on 
which the Law was given (to Moses.) To 
honour that day, the days were counted from 
the preceding solemnity (of the Passover) to the 
present one, just as a man who is expecting his 
r 2 



256 REASONS OF THE 

best and most faithful friend, is accustomed to 
count the days and hours till his arrival; and this 
is the true reason why the days are reckoned from 
the day on which the Omer or Sheaf was offered, 
(Levit. xxiii, 15,) and on which they were 
brought out of Egypt, to that of the giving of 
the Law, which was the chief cause and end of 
their coming out of Egypt, as it is said, (Exod. 
xix, 4,) " I brought you unto myself." And 
because that great and glorious manifestation 
continued during one day only, therefore the 
commemoration of it annually was peculiarly 
solemnized only on one day ; but as the Eating 
of Unleavened Bread would have passed without 
any impression or distinct recollection of the 
reason and object of it, if it had been merely for 
a single day, since it frequently happens that 
men eat unleavened bread for two or three days 
together, therefore it was continued for a whole 
week, that the cause of it might be observed 
and impress the mind. 

In like manner the celebration of the Beginning 
of the (Civil) Year was limited to one day, 
because it was intended to be a day of repentance 
and conversion, or awaking men out of sleep; 
and for the same reason the Blowing of the Trum- 
pets (Levit. xxiii, 24,) was ordered to take place 
on that day. It was besides this, a preparation 
for the day of Fasting, (/. e. of Expiation,) as is 
evident from the ten days intervening betwixt 
the commencement of the year and the day of 
Expiation. (71) 



LAWS OF MOSES. 257 

The design of the Feast of Tabernacles was to 
induce joy and hilarity ; and that its object might 
be universally spread and known, it was cele- 
brated during seven days. The reason of its 
appointment at this time of the year is clearly 
indicated in the law, by saying, (Exod. xxiii, 16,) 
" When thou hast gathered in thy labours out 
of the field," (J. e. because thou hast now some 
rest and leisure from business.)— Aristotle in his 
Ethics,(J$. viii, c. 9,) mentions a similar procedure 
among the Gentiles : — ■" The ancient sacrifices, 
assemblies, and conventions for sacrifices, were 
made at the gathering in of the fruits and pro- 
ductions of the earth, as the season of greatest 
leisure and rest." — The festival may also have 
been appointed at this season of the year, because 
the dwelling in booths (or tabernacles) was then 
most tolerable, not being much troubled either 
with heat or rain. 

Besides this, the two feasts of the Passover 
and Tabernacles teach us the most beneficial 
Doctrines and Duties. — With regard to Doctrines, 
the Passover serves as a memorial of the miracles 
in Egypt, and to perpetuate the remembrance of 
them to future generations; and the Feast of 
Tabernacles, to preserve the memory of the signs 
wrought in the desert. — In respect to Duties, we 
learn from them, that in prosperity we ought to 
remember our former adversity with constant 
thanksgivings to God for our deliverance ; and 
that in eating unleavened bread and bitter herbs 
in the Passover, we ought to learn humility and 



258 



REASONS OF THE 



meekness, recalling to mind the things which 
have happened unto us. Thus, being commanded 
at the Feast of Tabernacles to leave our houses 
and dwell in booths, like hermits who have their 
residence in deserts in the midst of great wretch- 
edness and inconvenience, we are reminded that 
such was formerly our situation, as it is said, 
(Levit. xxiii, 42,) " That your generations may 
know that I made the children of Israel to dwell 
in booths, when I brought them out of the land 
of Egypt ;" but are now delivered from that 
situation and brought to dwell in painted houses, 
and in the best and fattest land of the whole 
earth, by the peculiar favour of God, and accord- 
ing to the promises which were made to our 
fathers themselves, to Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob, because they were men perfect in know- 
ledge and virtue. For this is one of the founda- 
tions of the law, or principles on which it depends, 
that every good which God has done or will do 
for us, is for the sake of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, 
because they walked in the way of the Lord, 
doing j ustice and j udgment. (72) 

From the Feast of Tabernacles we go to 
another Solemnity on the eighth day, (Lev. xxiii, 
36, 39,) the Feast of In- Gathering, tending to 
make our joys perfect, which could not be done 
in tabernacles, but in large and spacious houses 
and palaces. (73) 

As to the four kinds of boughs or branches, 
which are to be carried on the day of the Feast of 
Tabernacles, (Levit. xxiii, 40,) our Rabbins have. 



LAWS OF MOSES. 259 

according to custom, assigned an allegorical 
reason for them : For they are accustomed, as 
those know who are acquainted with them, 
greatly to delight in allegories and frequently to 
use them, not that they consider them as con- 
veying the mind and sense of Scripture, but in 
order to gratify a fondness for enigmatical 
writing. — To me, however, the four kinds of 
boughs or branches made use of in the Feast of 
Tabernacles appear to be intended as a sign of 
joy on account of deliverance from the desert, (or 
wilderness,) where there was neither seed, nor 
figs, nor vines, nor pomegranates, nor even water 
to drink, into a land of fruit-trees and rivers. 
In memory of this, He therefore commanded us 
to take of the best of the fruits of the land, of 
its most pleasant things, of its most beautiful 
leaves, and of the goodliest "willows of the 
brook ;" and three reasons may be assigned why 
these four kinds were to be united : the first is, 
because in those times they grew in every part 
of the land of Israel, and might be procured by 
every body ; the second is, their beauty and ver- 
dure, some of them being most sweetly and 
pleasantly odoriferous as the citron and myrtle, 
others of them not, as the palm and willow ; the 
third is, because they retain their freshness and 
moisture for the whole of seven days, which 
peaches, pomegranates, and others of a similar 
nature do not. (74) 



CHAPTER XIX, 



Of the Causes and Reasons of Precepts of the ninth Class. 

nPHE Precepts of the ninth class are those 
which are comprehended in our book, " Of 
Love." — The reason of them is clear, for the 
design of such Acts of Worship is, that we may 
set God continually before us, and fear and love 
him, and keep his commandments, and believe 
those things concerning him which ought to be 
believed by every one who professes the true 
religion. — These acts of worship are Prayer, 
Reading, [the Shema,] or, " Hear, O Israel, the 
Lord thy God is one Lord, &c," (Deut. vi, 4,) 
blessing food, and whatever else is connected 
with them :— the Benediction of the Priests, (75) 
Phylacteries, Mezuzoth, Zizith, (76) Purchasing 
the Book of the Law, (77) and diligently Bead- 
ing in it at certain times. (78) All these are 
practices so manifestly teaching many useful doc- 
trines and opinions, that it is needless to enlarge 
upon them. 



CHAPTER XX. 



Of the Causes and Reasons of Precepts of the tenth Class. 

nPHE Precepts included in the tenth class are 
those which are noticed in the Talmudica* 
Tracts "Of the Chosen House," "Of the 
Vessels and Ministers of the Sanctuary," and 
"Of Entering into the Sanctuary;" the utility 
of which, in general, has been shown already. 

It is well known that the ancient Idolaters 

chose high and lofty places for the scites of their 

Temples and Idols, and frequently erected them 

on mountains. (79) Our father Abraham, 

therefore, chose Mount Moriah, because it was 

the highest mountain in that region, and publicly 

professed the Unity of God upon it ; and that 

towards the West, because the Holy of Holies 

was to be placed towards the West. From this 

has arisen the saying, that "the Divine Majesty 

is in the West," and the express declaration of 

our Rabbins in the Gemara, that " Abraham our 

Father pointed out the West for the Holy of 

Holies." But in my judgment, the reason was, 

that since it was the common superstition to 

adore the Sun and regard it as a god, men would, 

doubtlessly, turn themselves towards the East, and 

therefore our Father Abraham turned himself 

towards the West on Mount Moriah, that his 



262 REASONS OF THE 

back might be upon the Sun; for we are 
not ignorant of what the Israelites did when 
they apostatized and returned to their former 
errors : " They turned their backs, " saith 
the Prophet, (Ezekiel viii. 16,) " toward 
the temple of the Lord, and their faces towards 
the east, and they worshipped the sun toward 
the east." — Observe this with astonishment and 
suitable regard ! — Besides, I have no doubt, but 
that Moses and many others knew the place 
which Abraham, by a prophetic spirit, had 
selected and pointed out ; for, Abraham had 
commanded, that this should be the place of 
divine worship, that is, that the temple should 
be erected there, as Onkelos, the Chaldee para- 
phrast, explains Gen. xxii. 13, 14, by saying, 
" And Abraham offered sacrifice and prayed in 
that place, and said before the Lord, In this 
place there shall be generations of worshippers." 
The place of the sanctuary was not openly and 
clearly indicated in the law, but only obscurely 
intimated in the words, " In the place which 
the Lord shall choose," (Deut. xii. 26,) for 
which, I apprehend, three important reasons 
may be assigned ;— first, lest the Gentiles should 
get possession of it, or involve us in war on 
account of it, when they knew it to be the place 
designated by the law : — secondly, lest those 
Gentiles who then had it in possession should 
exert all their power to lay it waste and destroy 
it : — and thirdly, (which is the principal reason,) 
lest anv of the tribes should be desirous of hav- 



LAWS OF MOSES, 



263 



ing it in their lot and territory, and thereby 
occasion disputes about it, as was the case con- 
cerning the priesthood. — On this account also, 
it was enjoined, that no one should build the 
house of the sanctuary until a king should be 
appointed, who should order it to be built, and 
thus remove every occasion of dispute. 

The ancient nations also erected temples to 
the stars, and placed in them idols dedicated to 
certain of the heavenly bodies which they uni- 
versally worshipped ; and hence, we were com- 
manded to build a temple to the Most High 
God, (80) and to place it in the ark, (81) 
enclosing the two tables of stone, in which was 
written, " I am the Lord thy God, — thou shalt 
have no other gods before me ;" (i. e. the whole 
of the Decalogue.) 

Further, it is acknowledged, that belief in 
prophecy precedes belief in the law; (for if 
there be no prophet there is no law ;) and pro- 
phecy is never communicated to a prophet, but 
by the mediation of angels, as it is said, (Gen. 
xxii. 15,) " The angel of the Lord called unto 
Abraham," and again, (xvi. 9.) " The angel 
of the Lord said unto her," — and in innumer- 
able other places : (82) thus, also, the first 
revelation of prophecy to our teacher Moses, 
was by an angel, — " The angel of the Lord 
appeared unto him in a flame of fire ;" (Exod. 
iii. 2 ;) consequently, belief in the existence of 
angels must be prior to belief in prophecy, and 
belief in prophecy prior to belief in the law. 



264 REASONS OF THE 

But the Zabii being ignorant of the nature of the 
true God, and regarding the heavens and the hea- 
venly bodies as that eternal Being who was free 
from all privation, and supposing that from thence 
all kinds of power flowed down into images and 
certain trees, called in the law Ashe roth, (83) mium,- 
concluded that those images and trees inspired the 
prophets with the prophetic language which they 
uttered in their visions, predicting good or evil. 
But when the truth is made known by the Wise 
Men, and it is fully proved that there is a Being 
who is neither a body nor an attribute of body, 
namely, the true God; that he is One; (84) 
that besides Him there are other abstract and 
incorporeal Beings, (called angels,) upon whom 
He confers his light and goodness ; and that all 
those beings are distinct from the spheres and 
their stars, they learn from thence that angels, 
and not images or trees, impart the words of 
truth to the prophets. — From what has just been 
said, it appears therefore clear, that belief in 
the existence of angels follows the belief in the 
existence of God, and that by them prophecy 
and the law are administered or confirmed. 

To establish this doctrine, God commanded 
the figure of two angels, (cherubims)Zo be madeand 
placed upon the ark, (85) that the minds of men 
might be confirmed in the belief of the existence 
of angels, since this is an article of faith next to 
that of the being of a God, and prior to that of 
prophecy and the law ; for if there had only 
been the figure of one angel or cherub, it might 



LAWS OF MOSES. 265 

have led them into error, since they might 
have imagined that it was an image of God 
such as the idolaters made and designed to be 
the object of worship, or might have been 
induced to believe that there was but one angel, 
and thus have fallen into different errors; but 
the making of two cherubims, accompanied by 
the declaration, " The Lord our God is one 
Lord," placed these articles of belief beyond 
dispute, — that angels do exist and that they are 
numerous ; and took away all occasion of error 
in supposing they were God, by declaring that 
God is one and the Creator of all of them. 

After this, it was commanded to place the 
Candlestick before the ark, (Exod. xxv. & xxvi,) 
for the decoration and honour of the house of 
God, (86) as it is certain that house will be 
most highly venerated by men in which a light 
is kept perpetually burning within a vail ; (87) 
and, we know how earnestly and solicitously 
the law endeavours to convince us of the honour 
and glory of the sanctuary, that by the view of 
it we may learn humility, and gentleness and 
mercy. Thus, in like manner, immediately 
after enjoining the observance of the sabbath, 
it is said, " Ye shall reverence my sanctuary," 
(Levit. xix. 30,) in order to increase our 
veneration for it. (88) 

The need of the Altar of Incense, of the Altar 
of Burnt-Offering, and of their instruments or 
utensils, is sufficiently obvious ; and as to w T hat 



266 REASONS OF THE 

regards the Table, and the Bread to be continually 
placed upon it, I am hitherto ignorant both of 
the reason of them and of the objects to which 
they refer. (89) 

The reason why God forbade the Altar to be 
built of hewn stones, or to lift up any iron tool 
upon them, (Deut. xxvii. 5, 6,) was, because the 
idolaters at that time built their altars of hewn 
stones, and therefore we were forbidden to act 
like them ; and, that we might in every way 
avoid it, God commanded the altar to be made 
of earth, as it is said, (Exod. xx. 24,) "An altar 
of earth shalt thou make unto me;" but where 
this could not be done without the use of stones, 
then they were to remain in their natural state 
unhewn and unpolished : (90) For a similar rea- 
son also he prohibited sculptured images, (Levit. 
xxvi. 1,) (91) and the planting of trees near the 
altar. (Deut. xvi. 21.) (92) The design of all 
these prohibitions is one and the same, namely, 
to prevent our worshipping Him in the manner 
in which the idolaters were accustomed to wor- 
ship their false gods ; a practice generally and 
universally forbidden, when it is said, (Deut. 
xii. 30,) " Take heed, that thou enquire not 
after their gods, saying, How did these nations 
serve their gods ? even so will I do likewise," — 
intending thereby to prohibit their acting thus 
towards God, and therefore subjoins this rea- 
son : — " For every abomination to the Lord 
which he hateth, they have done unto their gods." 



LAWS OF MOSES. 267 

It is also known, that the idolatrous worship of 
Peor, consisted formerly in uncovering the naked- 
ness before it ; on this account, therefore,God com- 
manded the priests, (Exod. xxviii. 42,) to " make 
themselves linen breeches to cover their naked- 
ness," when they were employed in divine wor- 
ship ; and also, (Exod. xx. 26.) that "they 
should not go up by steps unto the altar, lest 
their nakedness should be discovered thereon." 
(93.) 

The precepts respecting the custody and con- 
stant watchfulness over the Sanctuary, were given 
to promote the honour and majesty of God ; 
(Numb, iii.) and with the same intention also 
it was enjoined, that no idiot or unclean person, 
nor even any who were mourning or unwashed, 
should be permitted rashly to intrude. 

There were also other injunctions intended to 
promote reverence, veneration, and fear towards 
the sanctuary, among which were those who 
forbade any one to enter it who was drunken and 
unclean, or whose hair was suffered to be long, or 
whose garments were torn, and also that which 
commanded that all who ministered in it should 
wash their hands and feet. 

To add to the honour of God's house, and to 
render it more august, he exalted the dignity of 
its ministers and separated the Priests and Levites 
from others: — he also commanded that the 
priests should be clothed with beauiifid and costly 
vestments, as it is said, (Exod. xxviii. 2,) " Thou 



268 



REASONS OF THE 



shalt make holy garments for Aaron thy bro- 
ther for glory and for beauty ;" and ordered that 
no one should be admitted into the ministry (of 
the sanctuary,) who had any bodily defect, none 
who had any deformity being eligible to the 
priesthood ; the reason of which was, as explained 
in the Talmud, because the vulgar do not judge 
of men according to their real perfection which 
is rational and intellectual, but according to their 
personal comeliness, and the beauty and richness 
of their garments : the design, therefore, of all 
these precepts was, that the house of God 
might be held, by every one, in due reverence 
and honour. 

The Levite likewise, who neither offered nor 
sacrificed, and of whom it was not said that he 
might expiate sin, as was said of the priests, 
(Levit. iv. 26,) " The priest shall make an atone- 
ment for him," and again, (Levit. xii. 7,) " The 
priest shall make an atonement for her," — but 
whose office was singing, might be rendered 
ineligible by his voice ; for in singing the chief 
object is to affect the mind by the words which 
are sung, which can never be effected except 
by melodious voices, pleasant tunes, and suitable 
instruments of music, such as have always been 
in the sanctuary. 

It was also to honour the sanctuary, that 
even the priests themselves, the lawful ministers 
of the sanctuary, were forbidden to reside in it, or 
to enter it at pleasure; and that no one but the 



LAWS OF MOSES, 



209 



High-Priest was ever permitted to enter into the 
Holy of Holies, and that only four times annually 
on the day of expiation. (94) 

To prevent the stench which would other- 
wise have been occasioned by the number of 
beasts which were every day slaughtered in the 
sanctuary, and their flesh cut to pieces and their 
inwards and legs washed and burnt, God ordained 
that incense should be burned in it every morning 
and evening, and thereby rendered the odour of 
the sanctuary and of the vestments of those who 
ministered exceedingly grateful ; which has 
occasioned the saying of our Rabbins, that the 
odour of the incense extended to Jericho. — This, 
therefore, is another of the precepts conducing to 
the reverence and veneration which ought to be 
entertained for the sanctuary ; for if the perfume 
had not been pleasant, but the contrary, it would 
have produced contempt instead of veneration, 
since a grateful odour pleases and attracts, whilst 
an unpleasant one disgusts and repels. 

The anointing 0«7,(Exod. xxx. 31,) produced a 
two-fold benefit, the pleasantness of what was 
anointed with it, and the dignity and sanctity of 
that which was separated by it from the rest of 
its kind and consecrated to a more excellent use, 
whether it were a man, or a garment, or any 
utensil. This also, as well as the other precepts, 
may be regarded as inducing that veneration for 
the sanctuary which creates reverence and fear 
of God; for the minds of men are peculiarly 
impressed with devotional feelings on entering 
S 



270 REASONS OF THE 

the sanctuary, and the hard heart becomes 
softened and humbled ; and thus, by softening 
and humbling the hearts of men, Divine Wis- 
dom prepares them for receiving with greater 
readiness the commandments of God, and leads 
them to fear Him, as is shown in the law, when 
it says, (Deut. xiv. 23,) " Thou shalt eat before 
the Lord thy God, in the place which he shall 
choose to place his name there, the tithe of 
thy corn, of thy wine, and of thine oil, and the 
firstlings of thy herds and of thy flocks : that 
thou mayest learn to fear the Lord thy God 
always." Thus the design of all the before- 
mentioned actions is made evident. 

The cause of the prohibition that no one else 
should make such oil or incense, (Exod. xxx. 
32, 33,) was, doubtless, that there might be no 
such perfume found elsewhere, and consequently 
a greater attachment be induced for the sanc- 
tuary; and also, to prevent the great evils that 
might arise from men esteeming themselves 
more excellent than others, if they were allowed 
to anoint themselves with a similar oil. 

The reason why the Ark was to be borne on 
men's shoulders, (Numb. vii. 9,) and not on a 
carriage, was for the honour of the ark, and 
that the form and structure of it might not be 
injured, especially when the staves were to be 
drawn out of the rings, nor the Ephod or 
Breast-plate receive any damage. 

All the Garments were to be woven throughout 
without seam, that the beauty of the texture 
might not be injured. 



LAWS OF MOSES. 271 

It was also enjoined, that those who engaged 
in the service of the Sanctuary should avoid 
interfering with each other in their duty; for 
when any business is committed to many per- 
sons, and not every one appointed to his 
particular office, there is the utmost danger of 
their becoming negligent and slothful. 

Finally, the comparative degrees (of Holiness} 
attributed to sacred places, for instance, in the 
injunctions respecting the Mountain of the House, 
or the Outward Court, or the Court of the Women, 
or the other Courts, until we come to the Holy 
of Holies, must all be intended to increase 
reverence and honour for the house of God.- — 
Thus we have shown the reasons of all this class 
of precepts. 



s 2 



CHAPTER XXL 



Of the Causes and Reasons of Precepts of the eleventh Class. 

HPHE precepts of the eleventh class are 
enumerated by us, partly in the Talmudical 
treatise " Of Divine Worship," and partly 
in that " Of Oblations." — The general utility 
of them having been already explained, we 
shall now endeavour to give the reasons for 
them in particular instances, especially with 
reference to mankind. 

The Divine Law has taught, according to the 
exposition of Onkelos, that the Egyptians wor- 
shipped the constellation or sign Aries, and, 
therefore, not only forbade the slaying of sheep, 
but held shepherds in the utmost contempt, and 
deemed them an abomination : hence, Moses 
replied to Pharaoh, (Exod. viii. 26,) " Lo! shall 
we sacrifice the abomination of the Egyptians 
before their eyes ?" (95) 

Some of the Zabii also worshipped Demons, 
and believed that they had the form of goats, 
whence they called demons Serim, (cd n y t») Goats. 
This opinion had spread throughout the world 
as early as the time of Moses, since we find him 
saying, (Levit. xvii, 7,) " They shall no more 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 273 

offer their sacrifices (cpij>ttf!?)to Goats,'''' that is, 
to demons thus called, and hence that class of 
idolaters forbade the eating of goats. (96) 

The slaying of Cattle was, likewise, always 
regarded by the principal part of idolaters with 
detestation, and brute animals of that kind were 
held in high estimation by all of them ; and at 
this day there are idolaters to be met with in 
India, who never slay them, even in those places 
where they are accustomed to slaughter sheep 
and similar animals. (97) 

To obliterate such erroneous opinions from 
the minds of men, it was enjoined that only 
these three kinds of animals, rams, goats, and 
cattle, should be offered in sacrifice, as it is said, 
(Levit. i, 2,) "Ye shall bring your offering of 
the cattle, even of the herd, and of the flock ;" so 
that by this means, that was offered to God as an 
atonement for our sin, which they esteemed as a 
crime of the greatest turpitude ; and those 
depraved sentiments, which are, as it were, the 
disease and ulcer of the human soul were cured 
by directly opposite measures. 

On this account also God commanded us (Exod. 
xii.) to slay the Lamb on the day of the Passover, 
and to sprinkle the blood upon the lintel and side- 
posts of our doors, that we might be, thereby, not 
only purged from those pernicious opinions, but 
avow others of a contrary nature ; and that men 
might be convinced that the very act which they 
judged to be deserving of death, was actually 
the means of rescuing us from it, according as it 



274 REASONS OF THE 

is said, (Exod. xii, 23,) " The Lord will pass 
through to smite the Egyptians ; and when he 
seeth the blood upon the lintel, and on the two 
side-posts, the Lord will pass over the door, and 
will not suffer the destroyer to come in unto 
your houses to smite you ;" — thus preserving 
them from destruction, as the reward of that act 
of worship which was evidently performed in 
opposition to the practices of the idolaters. This, 
therefore, was the reason why these three kinds 
of animals were chosen for sacrifice in pre- 
ference to others ; to which may be added, that 
they were every where to be found and obtained, 
which was not the case with those offered by the 
idolaters, who were accustomed to sacrifice lions, 
bears, tigers, and other wild beasts. (98) 

But because there were many who were not 
sufficiently rich to offer cattle, it was commanded 
that such should offer sacrifices of certain birds 
which were common and in great numbers in the 
Land of Israel, as turtle-doves and young pigeons ; 
and those who could not afford to offer even 
these might lawfully offer bread, baked and pre- 
pared in any of the ways in use at that time, 
whether in an oven or pan, or flat plate, or fry- 
ing-pan ; and if any were too poor to offer even 
baked-bread, they were permitted to offer flour 
alone unbaked. 

These offerings were, nevertheless, all volun- 
tary ; for it is observed respecting them, that, 
although they should not be offered, no guilt 
should be incurred ; as it is said, (Dent, xxiii, 22,) 



LAWS OF MOSES. 275 

" If thou shalt forbear to vow, it shall be no sin 
in thee." 

It was likewise the practice of the idolaters to 
offer only leavened bread, and to choose sweet 
things for their oblations, and to anoint or 
besmear them with honey ; on this account, there- 
fore, we were forbidden to offer leavened bread 
or honey ; (99) but, because they never made use 
of salt in their offerings, we were strictly com- 
manded to use it in all our sacrifices, according 
to the injunction, (Levit. ii, 1-3,) "With all 
thine offerings thou shalt offer salt." (100) 

In addition to this it was enjoined, that all 
offerings should be as perfect as possible, that 
those things which were offered to the Most 
High God might not be contemned, as it is said, 
(Malachi i, 8,) " Offer now unto thy Governor ;" 
it was, therefore, forbidden to offer any animal 
under eight days old, because such an one is 
imperfect in its kind, and similar to an abortion. 
Neither was it lawful to " bring the hire of a 
whore, or the price of a dog, into the house of the 
Lord ;" (Deut. xxiii, 18 ;) for both of them were 
vile and contemptible. — The reason already 
adduced was also the ground of the command 
to offer the best of the bullocks and young pigeons ; 
(Levit. i ;) old pigeons being neither pleasant nor 
tender ; and on a similar account it was ordained 
that the Mincha, or Meat- Offering, made of fine 
flour, should have oil poured upon it, (101) to 
render the taste of it agreeable, and frankincense 
put upon it, (102) to counteract by its excellent 



276 REASONS OF THE 

odour the disagreeable smell arising from the 
burning of flesh upon the altar ; (Levit. ii, 1 ;) 
and for the same reason, to honour the Offering, 
and to prevent its being looked upon with con- 
tempt, it was commanded to " flay the Burnt- 
Offering," and to " wash the inwards and legs," 
(Levit. i, 6, 9,) (103) although the whole was to 
be burned : indeed, this reason will be found 
every where urged and inculcated, as the 
Prophet has noted, (Malachi i, 12,) " Ye say, 
The table of the Lord is polluted; and the fruit 
thereof, even his meat, is contemptible." 

For the reasons already assigned, the eating of 
offerings was forbidden to the uncircumcised and 
unclean ; the offering, if rendered unclean, not 
permitted to be eaten at all, nor the unpolluted 
offering itself to be eaten after a certain time, 
(Levit. vii,) nor even if it were suspected; and 
when eaten, was to be eaten in a certain place. 
But the whole Burnt-Offering, being devoted to 
God, was not to be eaten in any way, but to be 
entirely consumed. 

The Sin-Offering or Sacrifice for sin, (n«tsn) 
(Levit. vi, 26,) and the Trespass-Offering, (o u> »,) 
were to be eaten in the Court on the day 
which they were severally offered, or during 

the night which followed The Peace- Offerings, 

(t=pDS>u>) which are inferior to the former and 
called by our Rabbins, (t=p i> p t=p un j?,) Minor Holy 
Things, might be eaten in the city of Jerusalem, 
either on the same day on which they were 
offered or on the day following, but not after- 



LAWS OF MOS.ES. 277 

wards, (Levit. vii, 15,) because after that time 
they became tainted and putrid. 

For the special honour of Oblations, and all 
those things which were devoted to the Great 
and Ever-Blessed God, it was commanded, 
(Levit. v, 16,) that whoever should apply any 
hallowed thing to his own use, should be considered 
as committing a trespass, and requiring atone- 
ment, and shoidd add a fifth part and give it 
to the priest, even if he had committed the 
trespass through ignorance. In like manner it 
is forbidden (Deut. xv, 19) " to do any work 
with the firstlings of our bullocks, or to 
shear the firstlings of our sheep," on account 
of the reverence which ought to be enter- 
tained for things consecrated to God. In the 
law too we are cautioned against altering or 
changing Sacred Things : for if this were 
suffered, a bad thing might be substituted for a 
good one, under a pretence of its being better, 
and therefore it was decreed, " It, and the 
exchange thereof, shall be holy. "(Lev. xxvii, 10.) 
Nor is the reason obscure why it was enjoined 
(Levit. xxvii, 13,) that, he who wished to redeem 
any of his devoted things should " add a fifth 
part to itf for men always regard their 
own advantage, and are naturally inclined to 
parsimony and avarice, so that they seldom 
accurately estimate the value of any sacred thing, 
or so fully exhibit it as that an adequate price 
may be affixed to it, and, therefore, they were 
ordered to make an addition to the price, to 



278 REASONS OF THE 

render it equal to the sum for which they would 
be willing to sell another. The whole of these 
injunctions were likewise designed to prevent 
any thing being despised which bore upon it the 
name of God, and was consecrated to Him. 
(104) 

Every Mincha, or Meat- Offering for the priest, 
was commanded " to be wholly burnt, and not 
eaten," (Levit. vi, 23,) because every priest had 
to offer the oblation for himself; but if he had 
brought the Meat- Offering, and yet had been 
permitted to eat it, it would have been doing 
nothing, for, of the oblation of any other, who 
was a private man, the frankincense and a hand- 
ful of flour was all that was offered ; (Levit. ii, 2 ;) 
and such a diminution of the oblation would not 
have been sufficient, if he who brought it might 
have eaten the rest, nor would it have appeared 
to be an act of worship, and, therefore, it was 
ordered to be burnt. 

The reason for the peculiar statutes and cus- 
toms of the Passover, such as, that it was to 
be eaten merely roasted with fire, — to be eaten in 
one house, — and not to have a bone of it broken, 
(Exod. xii, 9, 46,) is evident and clear; for as 
unleavened bread was used because of haste, so for 
the same reason also roasted meat was preferred, 
because there was not time for food to be daintily 
cooked and prepared, nor could the stay to break 
the bones and take away what, in other cases, was 
forbidden. The law adduces this reason for 
these things, when it says, (Exod. xii. 11,) « Ye 



LAWS OF MOSES. 



279 



shall eat it in haste ;" for when persons are in 
haste there is no opportunity for breaking bones, 
or for sending flesh from one house to another, 
and waiting the return of the messenger, for all 
these things require time and leisure ; and the 
cause of their being " in haste," was, lest any 
one should be retarded so long as to be pre- 
vented from departing with the multitude, and 
should be intercepted and killed : they were 
also ordered to be always observed, that the 
memory of the passover might be perpetuated 
according to that which is said, (Exod. xii. 24,) 
" Ye shall observe this thing for an ordinance to 
thee and to thy sons for ever." 

The Paschal Lamb was to be eaten by a certain 
number of persons, (Exod. xii. 4,) that every one 
might seriously and diligently provide it for 
himself, and not trust to any friend or neigh- 
bour who might neglect it. — The uncircumcised 
were forbidden to eat of it, for which our Rab- 
bins offer the following reason : They omitted, 
say they, the precept of Circumcision during their 
long sojourning in Egypt, that they might be like 
the Egyptians : when, therefore, the ordinance of 
the Passover was enjoined us, God annexed this 
condition to it, that no one should slay it until 
he had circumcised himself, and his sons and 
domestics, and then he might eat it. All cir- 
cumcised themselves, and such was the number of 
the circumcised, that the blood of circumcision was 
mingled with the blood of the Passover ; and some 
vestiges of this we have in the Prophet, (Ezek. 



280 REASONS OF THE 

xvi. 6,) saying, " And when I passed by thee and 
saw thee polluted in thy own blood," i. e. in the 
blood of the Circumcision and in the blood of the 
Passover. 

Besides, although Blood was in some sort consi- 
dered as unclean and impure in the eyes of the 
Zabii, yet it was eaten by them, because they 
supposed it to be the food of demons, and that 
he who ate it acquired, by that means, some 
kind of communion with them, so that they 
would converse familiarly with him, and reveal 
to him future events, according to what is 
generally attributed to demons by the vulgar. 
There were, however, some among the Zabii, 
to whom the eating of blood appeared loathsome 
and repulsive, being what men, in general, 
naturally abhor. These, therefore, slew a 
beast and caught the blood, which they poured 
into a vessel or small hole in the ground, and 
then sitting in a circle round the blood, ate the 
flesh, imagining that by this action the demons 
drank the blood as their food, whilst they 
themselves were eating the flesh, and that 
friendship, fraternity, and familiarity were 
thereby contracted with them, because they had 
eaten at the same table and reclined on the 
same seat; besides which, they also believed, 
that demons appeared to them in their sleep, 
indicating many things that were to come, and 
discovering others. In fact, these opinions were, 
at that time, universally viewed and approved, 
and no one doubted the truth of them. 



LAWS OF MOSES. 281 

For this cause, therefore, the Divine Law, 
which renders those who know it perfect, was 
given to eradicate those inveterate diseases, by 
prohibiting the eating of blood, and, as in the 
case of idolatry, enforcing the prohibition by an 
additional sanction; for God says of eating- 
blood, (Levit. xvii. 10.) " I will set my face 
against that soul that eateth blood, and will cut 
him off from among his people ;" and in the 
same manner he says concerning him who sacri- 
fices his son to Moloch, (Levit. xx. 3,) " I will 
set my face against that man, and will cut him 
off from among his people; because he hath 
given his seed to Moloch." — A mode of expres- 
sion never used but respecting idolatry and the 
eating of blood, and denounced against the 
latter because it induced and encouraged that 
species of idolatry which consisted in the wor- 
ship of demons. (105) 

But notwithstanding this, the law pronounced 
blood to be clean, and those who touched it, 
not to be polluted, as it is said, (Exod. xxix. 21,) 
— " Thou shalt take of the blood that is upon the 
altar, — and sprinkle it upon Aaron, and upon his 
garments, and upon his sons, and upon the gar- 
ments of his sons with him ; and he shall be hal- 
lowed, and his garments, and his sons, and his sons' 
garments with him." — It was also commanded 
to " sprinkle the blood upon the altar round 
about." (Exod. xxix. 20.) But this injunction 
was added, that every act of this kind of wor- 



282 REASONS OF THE 

ship should be performed by shedding the blood, 
and not by collecting it, as it is said, (Levit. 
xvii. 11,) " I have given it to you upon the 
altar to make an atonement for your souls," i. e. 
by shedding of it, as is elsewhere observed, " He 
shall pour out all the blood at the bottom of the 
altar of the burnt-offering ;" (Levit. iv. 18 ;) 
and again, " The blood of thy sacrifice shall be 
poured out upon the altar of the Lord thy 
God." (Deut. xii. 27.) (106) Even the blood 
of those beasts which were not designed to be 
offered in sacrifice, was commanded to be poured 
out, when they were slaughtered ; for the 
law declares, (Deut. xii. 16,) " Ye shall not eat 
the blood : ye shall pour it upon the earth 
as water." Besides this, it was forbidden 
to gather themselves together round the 
blood, in order to feast upon it ; for it is said, 
(Levit. xix. 26,) " Ye shall not eat any thing 
Ov) at or upon the blood." — But because they 
persevered in their contumacy and rebellion, and 
continued to walk in the way of the nations 
among whom they had been educated, and 
yielded to be the companions of demons by eat- 
ing around blood, therefore it was commanded 
that we should not eat the flesh of desire, in the 
desert, but that all our sacrifices should be 
" offered as Peace-offerings," (Levit. xvii. 5,) 
and the reason why it was the Divine will that 
the blood should be poured out upon the altar, 
and that the people should not gather round it, is 



LAWS OF MOSES. 283 

indicated, by saying, (Levit. xvii. 5,) " To the 
end that the children of Israel may bring their 
sacrifices, which they offer in the open field, even 
that they may bring them unto the Lord, unto 
the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, 
unto the priest, and offer them for peace-offer- 
ings unto the Lord ;" and again, (v. 7.) " They 
shall no more offer their sacrifices unto devils."" 
No mention is made of wild beasts or birds, 
because no offering was ever made of wild- 
beasts, and birds were offered in peace-offerings. 
But afterwards it was enjoined, (Levit. xvii. 13,) 
" Whatsoever man there be of the children of 
Israel, or of the strangers that sojourn among 
you, which hunteth and catcheth any beast or 
fowl that may be eaten ; he shall even pour out 
the blood thereof, and cover it with dust ;" so 
that they could not collect round it and feast 
together upon it, and by this means the associa- 
tions of those who are in reality possessed by 
the devil, might be prevented, as well as com- 
munion with demons themselves : — here also, we 
just remark, that we may judge that this kind of 
belief and superstition was very generally 
embraced and eagerly maintained in the time 
of Moses our teacher, by the words of the 
" Song of Moses" itself, which records, that 
" They sacrificed unto devils, not to God ;" 
(Deut. xxxii. 17 ;) on which our Wise Men 
have observed, that by the words, " Not to 
God," is meant, that they not only worship- 
ped things actually existing, but mere ima- 



284 REASONS OF THE 

ginary beings ; the terms they use in the book 
Siphri, are these, " It was not enough that they 
worshipped the sun, moon, and stars, and the 
celestial signs, but they worshipped even the 
shadows of them." — But to return, let it be 
remembered, that the flesh of desire was for- 
bidden no where but in the wilderness, for 
among the other ancient errors was also this, 
that demons inhabit and are seen and conversed 
with in deserts, but are never seen in cities and 
populous places, so that if any one belonging 
to an inhabited city wished to perform any 
rite of this vain and foolish sort, it was neces- 
sary for him to withdraw from the city and go 
out into the woods and desert places ; therefore, 
after they had entered the Promised Land, they 
were permitted to eat the flesh of desire ;— to 
which may be added, that as the strength of the 
disease weakened, the followers of it would be 
diminished in number ; and that it was next to 
impossible for all, who were desirous of eating 
the flesh of cattle, to come to Jerusalem. 

Farther, let it be observed, that the greater 
the offence committed, the meaner was to be the 
sacrifice which was offered ; thus, for idolatrous 
error, (J. e. idolatry practised through igno- 
rance,) a she-goat only, (Levit. iv. 27, 28,) and 
for the other sins of private individuals, a female 
kid or lamb was to be offered ; because in all 
animals the female is accounted inferior to the 
male, and as there is no sin greater than idolatry, 
so there is no species of animals viler than the 



LAWS OF MOSES. 285 

she-goat : but the king or ruler, because of his 
dignity, was obliged to offer a he- goat, (Levit. 
iv. 22 ;) and the High- Priest and the Sanhedrim 
a young bullock, and for idolatry a he-goat, 
their error not being confined to one deed or 
act merely, but influencing the general opinion 
and having the force of doctrine on the people. 
Thus, also, the sins for which the Ash am or 
trespass-offering was offered, being less than 
those for which the Chattaah or sin-offering was 
offered, therefore, the sacrifice of the trespass- 
offering was to be a ram or a lamb of the flock, 
the nobler species of animals and the more 
honourable sex, as in the whole burnt-offering 
which was to be entirely consumed, [i. e. w^holly 
offered to the Lord,] none but males were per- 
mitted to be offered. From a similar principle, 
inferior aromatics, and a smaller quantity of 
them, were required for the Mincha or meat- 
offering of the sin-offering, and for the Mincha 
or meat-offering in the case of the woman sus- 
pected of adultery, (Levit. v. 11.— Numb. v. 12,) 
because they were offered solely on account of 
the suspicion of sin, and consequently oil and 
frankincense were forbidden to be offered on those 
occasions. For God was pleased to enjoin them 
to be offered without the honourable additions of 
oil and frankincense, because the turpitude of the 
actions of the sinner was the cause of the oblation 
of the Mincha, (Numb. v. 15,) and as if, by this 
prohibition, he designed to bring him to sorrow 
and repentance, and to say to him, Because of 
T 



286 REASONS OF THE 

the turpitude of thy actions thy offering is 
less perfect than others. In like manner, because 
the conduct of the adulterous woman was 
baser and more criminal than that of the man 
who sinned through ignorance, so her oblation 
was inferior in its nature, being of barley-meal 
merely. Such then, is the principle on which 
all these precepts are founded ; — a principle that 
must be acknowledged to be admirable in its 
nature. 

Our Wise Men have likewise given a reason 
for "a young calf" being offered "for a Sin- 
Offering on the eighth day" of the consecration 
of Aaron and his sons, (Levit. ix, 2,) since, 
according to them, it was done to expiate the 
sin of the golden calf; and that, for the same 
reason, "a young bullock" was the sacrifice 
offered for sin on the day of expiation or atone- 
ment. (Levit. xvi, 6.) In our opinion, a similar 
reason existed for enjoining he-goats to be offered 
as the sin-offerings at their three principal feasts, 
—at the feasts of the new-moon, on the day of 
expiation, and for idolatry, whether the offerings 
were made for private persons or for the whole 
congregation ; (Numb, xxviii ;) for the greatest 
sin and the most grievous rebellion of that period 
was sacrificing to goats, (or satyrs,) therefore 
say the Scriptures, " They shall no more offer 
their sacrifices ( leasseirimj to goats." (Levit. 
xvii, 7.) (108) But our Wise Men say, that the 
reason why expiation was made by he-goats for 



LAWS OF MOSES, 



28' 



the whole congregation, was, that the whole 
congregation of Israel sinned about a goat, when 
they sold righteous Joseph into Egypt, as it is 
said,—" They killed a kid of the goats, and dipped 
the coat in the blood." (Gen. xxxvii, 31.) 

Nor ought this reason to be regarded as 
frivolous in its nature, for the end and scope of 
all these actions was deeply to impress the mind 
of every sinner with the necessity of having his 
sins constantly in remembrance, like David, who 
said, (Psalm li, 3,) " My sin is ever before me," 
and to convince them that it was the duty of 
himself and his posterity to expiate their sins by 
acts of devotion analogous to the nature of their 
crimes : thus, if they had sinned respecting riches 
or property, then they ought to devote their 
riches with liberality to acts of Divine Worship ; Y 
or if they had sinned by the actions of the body, 
then the body should be macerated and afflicted 
by fastings, and watchings, and similar mortifica- 
tions; or if their dispositions had become 
notoriously vicious, they should endeavour to 
correct and amend them by the opposite virtues ; 
or, lastly, if their sin were speculative in its 
nature, and they had been induced to adopt any 
false tenets, either through the weakness of their 
own understanding, or through negligence in 
searching and investigating Divine Truths, they 
might be inclined to contrary sentiments, by 
withdrawing their thoughts from worldly things, 
and restricting themselves by diligent reading 
and meditation to an enquiry after the Truth 

T % 



288 REASONS OF THE 

only. Thus Job says, (c. xxxi, 26, 27,) " If I 
beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon 
walking in brightness ; and my heart hath been 
secretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my 
hand :" which is figuratively spoken of that 
caution and hesitancy which ought ever to be 
exercised in doubtful cases. An instance of the 
expiation being thus suited to the nature of the 
crime we have in Aaron; for when he had 
transgressed in the matter of the golden calf, 
then his oblation and that of all who sprang 
from him was to be a a young bullock and a calf ; 
and in like manner when the sin was about the 
kid, the offering was to be a kid. When, there- 
fore, these things were once firmly fixed in the 
mind, they would be certain to produce the effect 
of causing men to guard against sin, that they 
might not offend God, and be subjected to long 
and painful expiations which, during the whole 
of life, might perhaps never be perfected so as 
to procure pardon; and of inducing them 
studiously to avoid and flee from the principles 
and practices of sin. The utility of this pro- 
cedure is, therefore, evident ; and may serve 
also for the personal edification of the reader. 
(109) 

It may be satisfactory also to explain another 
singular expression, though not altogether 
belonging to the subject of this chapter, 
by showing the reason, why it was said of 
the Goat offered for a sin-offering at the 
time of the new moon or first day of the 



LAWS OF M-OSE-&. 289 

month, that it was " a sin-offering unto the 
Lord:" (Numb, xxviii. 15:) and not of the 
other goats which were offered for sin-offerings 
on the principal festivals and other solemnities. 
For the cause of the expression, I apprehend, is 
this, that all the oblations which were offered 
on the other festivals were whole burnt- offerings, 
and that the " kid of the goats" offered for a 
sin-offering daily was eaten, but the whole burnt- 
offerings being entirely consumed by fire, were 
said to be " sacrifices made by fire unto the 
Lord;" — therefore, it was never said of the sin- 
offerings in general, that they were sin-offer- 
ings " unto the Lord," nor of the peace-offer- 
ings that they were " peace-offerings unto the 
LoR^j/' because they were commonly eaten by 
the priests ; and as it would have been improper 
to have called those sin-offerings, which were 
burnt " sacrifices made by fire unto the Lord," 
so we are not to suppose that this was the rea- 
son why it was said of the goat offered on the 
first day of the month, that it was " a sin-offer- 
ing unto the Lord," since it was not burnt but 
eaten. The true reason was, that this sin-offer- 
ing was peculiarly said to be unto the Lord, lest 
this goat should seem to be a sacrifice unto the 
moon, according to the custom of the Egyptians. 
But there was no need to be afraid of this with 
respect to the goats offered at the principal and 
annual feasts, because they were not sacrificed 
at the beginning of the month, nor distinguished 
by any natural sign, but merely by the appoint- 



290 REASONS OF THE 

ment of the law. The new moons, on the con- 
trary, not originating in the law, and the Gen- 
tiles being accustomed to offer sacrifices to the 
moon at those times, as they did also to the 
sun at his rising, and when he entered into 
certain signs ; the law, therefore, adopts a pecu- 
liar expression respecting the goat offered at 
the commencement of the month, and calls it 
" a burnt-offering unto the Lord," (Numb, 
xxviii. 11,) in order to extirpate such opinions 
from the hearts of men labouring under such a 
pestilential and inveterate disease. 

It may further be observed, that every Sin- 
Offering which is offered to make atonement 
for one or more of those whose crimes are great, 
as in the instance of the sin-offering C ? the 
u whole congregation of Israel," when they 
" sin through ignorance, and the thing be hid 
from the eyes of the assembly," (Levit. iv. 13,) 
and other similar cases, the offering must be 
burnt without the camp, and not upon the altar, 
(v. 21,) since nothing was to be burnt upon the 
altar but whole burnt- offerings and similar obla- 
tions, which was therefore called the Altar of 
Burnt-Offering', for the burning of the whole 
burnt-offering was " an odour of sweet savour 
unto the Lord," (v. 31,) like every kind of 
incense. The design of this was most assur- 
edly to eradicate idolatry, as we have already 
shown; but the burning of those sin-offerings 
was to teach us, that, as the body was burnt, 
so the sin was already blotted out and taken 



LAWS OF MOSES. 291 

away; and as there remained no remembrance 
of the sacrifice consumed by fire, so there 
remained no remembrance of that act for which 
it was offered ; the smoke, therefore, of such 
sacrifices was not an acceptable odour unto the 
Lord, but, on the contrary, ungrateful and 
abominable ; and on that account, they w T ere 
commanded to be burnt without the camp. 
For, has it not occurred to the reader, that 
it is said of the Mincha or meat-offering 
of the woman suspected of adultery, that " it 
is an offering of memorial, bringing iniquity to 
remembrance," (Numb. v. 15,) but that it is 
never said to propitiate or be pleasing? So the 
Scape- Goat being enjoined for the expiation of 
the sins of the whole nation which no sin- 
offering could expiate, and bearing all of 
them, as it were, at once ; it was, therefore, 
regarded as being unfit either to be sacrificed, 
or burnt, or buried, and was sent to the most dis- 
tant regions, or some uninhabited wilderness 
or island. (110) But as no one can suppose that 
sins are a burden of such a nature, as to be trans- 
ferred from the shoulders of one man to another, 
so no one can doubt but that these were sym- 
bolical actions designed to impress the minds of 
men, and by exciting their fears to produce 
their conversion, so that they may say, We are 
free from all our transgressions ; we have cast 
them behind our back, and banished them to the 
ends of the earth. 



292 REASONS OF THE 

I am still in doubt as to the reason of Wine 
being offered, idolaters also offering* it. There 
are, however, some who assign as the reason, 
that as the chief object of the concupiscible 
faculty or appetite, the cause of which is in the 
liver, is Flesh, so the object of the vital faculty, 
the seat of which is in the heart, is Wine, and 
the object of the animal faculty, which is situated 
in the brain, is Music, and the harmonious sounds 
of instruments of music ; every faculty, there- 
fore, offering unto God that which was most 
pleasing to it, the oblation consisted of Flesh, 
and Wine, and Music or Singing. (Ill) 

The utility and cause of instituting Festivals 
are evident ; for, by assembling and collecting 
the people together on such occasions, piety 
and devotion are excited, and social inter- 
course and brotherly love confirmed ; though 
it is certain that the prime object of the law, in 
ordaining the assembling of the people toge- 
ther, was for the promulgation of the law itself, 
that by this means every one might hear and 
learn it. 

The value of the second Tithes, which was 
to be carried to Jerusalem, (Deut. xii,) as we 
have already shown, (chap, xiv,) as well as the 
produce of the fourth year after planting Fruit 
Trees, and the tithes of Cattle, which, with the 
other tithes, were ordered to be carried thither, 
were all intended to increase the quantity of 
food at the festivals, and therefore were not 



LAWS OF MOSES. 



293 



permitted to be sold, nor deferred from one 
time to another, but brought, as is commanded 
Deut. xiv. 22, " year by year :" — and that 
Alms might not be forgotten at those solem- 
nities, God himself enjoined them, saying, 
" Thou shalt rejoice in thy feast, thou, and 
thy son, and thy daughter, and thy man-ser- 
vant, and thy maid-servant, and the Levite, the 
stranger, and the fatherless, and the widow, 
that are within thy gates." (Deut. xvi. 14.) — 
Thus we have enumerated the reasons of the 
injunctions of this class of precepts. 



CHAPTER XXII, 



Of the Causes and Reasons of Precepts of the twelfth Class. 

r ipHE Precepts of the twelfth class are those 
which have been noticed by us in the 
Talmudical Treatise " Of Purifications ;" and, 
although we have already partially indicated 
their utility, yet some remarks may be added, 
elucidating, first, the general and then the parti- 
cular reasons of them. 

We observe, therefore, that the Divine Law, 
which was given to Moses, and has received its 
denomination from him, was specially designed 
to lessen the burden and service of religious duties ; 
and if any thing appear to us injurious and fa- 
tiguing, it is only because we are ignorant of 
the rites and customs of those times. For con- 
sider how vast the difference is between him who 
burns his own son in honour of his god, and 
him who, in the worship and to the honour of 
our God, burns only a young pigeon ! ; for it is 
written in the law, (Deut. xii. 31,) " Their 
sons and their daughters they have burnt in the 
fire to their gods." — This was the worship paid 
by the Gentiles to their gods, and instead of which 
the burning of a young pigeon or of a hand- 
ful of fine flour was substituted, in our system. 



REASONS OF TOE LAWS OF MOSES. 295 

In this sense, God expostulated with the people 
by the prophet, in the time of their rebellion, 
(Micah vi. 3,) " O my people, what have I 
done unto thee ? and wherein have I wearied 
thee ? testify against me :" — and again, (Jer. 
ii. 31,) — " Have I been a wilderness unto Israel? 
a land of darkness ? wherefore say my people, 
We are lords ; we will come no more unto 
thee?:" — as if he had said, What injurious or 
tedious precept was there in the law to cause 
them to wander from it ?— Thus, the Most High 
God has elsewhere appealed to us, (Jer. ii. 5,) 
saying, " What iniquity have your fathers found 
in me, that they are gone far from me, and 
have walked after vanity and are become vain ?" 
— The intention of all these passages of Scrip- 
ture is the same ; and with the prefatory obser- 
vations, which are of considerable moment, 
ought never to be dropped from recollection. 

This being premised, we proceed to remark 
respecting the Sanctuary, that the chief object 
of the precepts respecting it was to create devo- 
tion and zeal on entering into it, and to impress 
the mind with reverence and fear, as it is said, 
(Levit. xix. 30,) " Ye shall reverence my sanc- 
tuary."— But as love and veneration for any 
thing, however excellent it may be, is weak- 
ened and diminished by familiarity, of which 
our Wise Men have admonished us, by saying, 
" It is well to enter into the Sanctuary when 
God pleases," by which they meant to convey 
what Solomon did when he said, (Prov. xxv. 17,) 



296 REASONS OF THE 

" Withdraw thy foot from thy neighbour's 
house." 

For this reason, therefore, God commanded 
that none who were polluted should enter into the 
Sanctuary, notwithstanding the numerous and 
various kinds of pollution rendered it almost 
impossible to find any who were absolutely pure : 
for, if any one were free from the defilement of 
touching a dead body, yet it was scarcely possible 
to avoid that which arose from touching one or 
other of the eight creeping things which are so 
frequently in our houses, or are liable to be trod 
upon, when walking, or which may happen to 
fall upon our meat or into our drink ; and if 
he escaped defilement from these, he would be 
in danger of pollution from touching persons 
pronounced unclean by the law, (see Levit. xv,) 
or from involuntary defilements, (v. 16,) or 
from touching the couches or beds of those who 
were unclean ; and even when cleansed from 
these defilements, he was still not permitted to 
enter the sanctuary until the sun had gone down, 
and then not during the night, since some 
cause of pollution might occur before morning, 
and render him as unclean as on the preceding 
day. In all these cases, men were obliged to 
absent themselves from the sanctuary, and were 
prevented from entering it at pleasure ; and our 
Rabbins add, that " no one might enter the 
court to perform any act of worship, unless he 
previously washed himself." Consequently, by all 
these actions, reverence, affection, and devotion 



LAWS OF MOSES, 297 

were preserved to the sanctuary ; and men were 
excited to that humility which was principally 
intended by them. 

The more frequent, also, any pollution was, 
the heavier and longer was the purification 
required ; thus, the touching and defilement of 
dead bodies, (especially of those of neighbours 
and relatives,) (Numb. xix. 11 — 22,) being more 
frequent than other pollutions, no purification 
could be effected but by the Ashes of the Heifer, 
which were difficult to be obtained, and then 
not till seven days had elapsed : — again, Issues 
of Blood, (Levit. xv,) and similar pollutions, 
because they were more frequent and grievous 
than the touching of unclean persons, therefore 
they who laboured under them had need of 
seven days, but they who had touched such per- 
sons of one day only, in order to be cleansed. 
But purification after an Issue of Blood, either 
in man or woman, or in puerperal cases, could 
not be completed without an oblation, since 
they more rarely occurred than natural haemor- 
rhages, — All these causes of pollution are, in 
their very nature, filthy and abominable, such 
as Issues, Dead Bodies, Reptiles, Lepers, and 
others of a similar kind. 

From these ordinances we may derive many 
and important benefits ; as, first, to shun all dirt, 
and filth and slovenliness ; secondly, to reverence 
the sanctuary ; thirdly, carefully to study the 
customs of those times, because the Zabii had also 



298 REASONS OF THE 

their laborious rites of purification, as we shall 
soon show ; and fourthly, men are thereby relieved 
from laborious and oppressive customs, so as not 
to be hindered in their usual business, on account 
of pollutions or purifications ; for this precept 
respecting- cleanness or uncleanness, only re- 
garded the Sanctuary and Holy Things, as it is 
said, (Levit. xii, 4,) " She shall touch no 
hallowed thing, nor come into the Sanctuary ;" 
leaving her at liberty to use all other things 
without sin, even whilst unclean, and to eat 
whatever kind of common food she chose. But, 
amongst the Zabii in some parts of the East, 
females were at certain times obliged to live in 
separate habitations, the things on which they 
trod were burnt, every person speaking to them 
was accounted polluted, and if only the wind 
had blown over them on to others who were pure, 
those persons were deemed polluted ; from which 
we may learn how great the difference is, betwixt 
what they teach and what our law teaches, which 
allows females to perform almost every duty to 
their husbands even when polluted. (112) 
According to the customs of the Zabii, every 
thing also which was separated from the body, 
as hairs, nails, blood, &c. was considered as 
polluting ; hence all barbers were regarded as 
unclean, from having to touch the hair and blood ; 
and every one who suffered a razor to pass upon 
him was obliged to wash himself in pure and 
limpid spring-water. Many other tedious and 



LAWS OF MOSES. 299 

wearisome ceremonies were also common 
amongst them. (113) 

On the contrary, with us, the distinctions of 
clean and unclean refer only to the Sanctuary 
and Holy Things; and when the Most High 
God says, (Levit. xi, 44,) " Ye shall sanctify 
yourselves and ye shall be holy," we are not to 
understand this as being spoken of external clean- 
ness or uncleanness; for as our Rabbins have said 
on these words, " It is the holiness of the precept ;" 
and again when it is said in another place, " Ye 
shall be holy," they write, "It is the holiness of the 
precept" that is meant. Hence the Transgression 
of the Precepts or peculiar Laws is also called 
Uncleanness or Pollution ; and is applied par- 
ticularly to the fundamental and principal 
precepts respecting idolatry, incest, and blood. 
Thus of idolatry it is said, (Levit. xx, 3,) " Be- 
cause he hath given of his seed unto Moloch, to 
defile my Sanctuary, and to profane my Holy 
Name." — Of incest and other abominations, 
(Levit. xviii, 24,) " Defile not ye yourselves in 
any of these things :" and of blood, (Numb, 
xxxv, 33, 34,) " Ye shall not pollute the land 
wherein ye are." The term Pollution is therefore 
equally spoken of three things ; first, of the dis- 
positions of men, and of their violations of 
doctrinal or practical precepts ; secondly, of 
external filthiness and uncleanness, as it is said, 
" Their filthiness is in their skirts; thirdly, of 
imaginary defilements, that is, by touching or 



300 REASONS OF THE 

carrying any thing unclean, of which latter species 
our Rabbins have said, " The words of the law 
suffer no pollution." The term Holiness, on the 
contrary, is made use of for the three things 
opposite to these. But because pollution, arising 
from touching a dead body, could not be purged 
away in less than seven days, nor without the 
ashes of the heifer, and the priests had con- 
tinually to enter into the Sanctuary to offer 
sacrifices, therefore they were forbidden to pol- 
lute themselves with the dead, (Levit. xxi.) 
except in cases of urgent necessity, as those of 
the death of their parents, children, and bre- 
thren, in which natural affection would have 
rendered it extremely difficult to have been 
restrained : but as it was indispensably neces- 
sary that the High-Priest should be always in 
the Sanctuary, as it is said, (Exod. xxviii. 38,) 
" It (i. e. the golden plate of the mitre) shall 
be always upon his forehead," therefore, he was 
forbidden to defile himself at all, even with 
the dead body of his father or mother. (Levit. 
xxi. 11, 12.) It ought, however, to be observed, 
that in these prohibitions respecting the priests 
in general, and the High- Priest in particular, 
neither the wives of the sons of Aaron, nor even 
the daughters of Aaron, were included, since it 
was not incumbent on the women to offer 
sacrifices. 

Further, because it could not be prevented 
from sometimes occurring, that some Israelite 



LAWS OF MOSES. 



301 



or other having been defiled, though uncon- 
scious of it, might enter into the Sanctuary or 
eat of holy things in that state or, even act thus 
presumptuously, since wicked men frequently 
and daringly commit many and great transgres- 
sions ; therefore, God commanded sacrifices to 
be offered as expiations for the pollutions of the 
Sanctuary and its holy utensils, (Levit. xvi,) 
whether committed through ignorance or pre- 
sumption ; such, for instance, according to their 
respective kinds were the goats of the feasts, the 
goats of the new moons, and the scape-goat, as is 
shown in their proper places. This was done, 
that he who had sinned presumptuously might 
not suppose that his offence, in polluting the 
Sanctuary, was a light and trivial one ; and yet 
that he might know, that, by the offering of 
the goat he was forgiven, as it is said, (Levit. 
xv. 31,) — " That they die not in their unclean- 
ness ;'* and again, (Exod. xxviii. 38,) " That 
Aaron may bear the iniquity of the holy 
things;" — and this reason is several times 
repeated in different places of the law. 

With respect to the pollution of the Leprosy, 
it is our opinion, and that of our Rabbins, as 
to the cause of it, that it was the punishment 
of an Evil Tongue, that is, of calumny and 
detraction ;— that it first began in the wall of 
the house ; — that if the offender then repented, 
it disappeared ; but that if he persisted in his 
rebellious conduct, it spread to his furniture ; 
and if he still would not desist, that it extended to. 
U 



302 REASONS OF THE 

his garments, and at length seized upon his body. 
(Levit. xiii. & xiv.) This view of it was enter- 
tained by our nation equally with that which 
regarded the " Waters of Jealousy ;" and the 
utility of such a belief must be manifest to 
every one, especially when it is added, that the 
Leprosy is contagious, and that all men natur- 
ally abhor and detest it, and flee from it. (114) — 
But, why was the 'purification of the Leper to be 
effected by cedar wood, and scarlet, and hyssop, 
and two sparrows ? (Levit. xiv. 4.) — A reason 
has, indeed, been assigned for it, but one which 
does not agree with our institutions ; nor have I, 
to this day, met with any one that I could 
regard as the true one. (115) In a similar 
manner I have never met with any reason to 
which I could assent, for the cedar-wood, and 
hyssop, and, scarlet used in the burning of the 
red heifer ; (Numb. xix. 6 ;) nor for the bunch 
of hyssop with which the blood of the passover 
was to be sprinkled. (Exod. xii. 22.) 

The reason why the Red Heifer was called 
Chattah, or sin-offering, (Numb. xix. 17,) was 
because it perfected the purification of the per- 
son who had been defiled by touching a dead 
body, so that he might enter into the Sanctuary, 
and eat of the holy things ; for no one, who had 
been defiled, would have dared to enter into the 
Sanctuary again, if the Red Heifer had not 
borne this sin, like the golden Plate of the High- 
Priesfs mitre, which rendered the polluted 
" accepted before the Lord," (Exod. xxviii. 



LAWS OF MOSES. 303 

36, 37, 38,) and the He -goats which were burnt. 
(] 16) On this account, therefore, the garments 
of him who was employed about the Red Heifer 
were defiled, as he who touched the Scape- 
Goat was deemed unclean because of the multi- 
tude of sins which it bore. — We have thus 
stated the causes and reasons also of this class 
of precepts. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



Of the Causes and Reasons of the Precepts of the thirteenth Class. 

'JTHE Precepts comprehended in the thirteenth 
class are those which we have enumerated in 
the Talmudical tracts, " Of forbidden meats ;" — 
• ' Of the rites of slaughtering ;" — " Of vows ;" and 
" Of the Nazariteship ;" — and although we have 
in other works largely and explicitly spoken of 
the utility of these precepts in general, (117) yet 
a more particular explanation of some of them 
may be added. 

We commence, therefore, by remarking, that 
all those kinds of food which are forbidden in 
our law, are unwholesome ; nor are there any 
amongst them, excepting por k and fat, concern- 
ing which a doubt can be entertained whether 
they be injurious to health or not. 

Nor does any ground exist for hesitancy even 
with regard to these. For the flesh of swine is of 
too humid a nature to be wholesome ; though the 
principal reason why the law forbade the eating of 
s wine, (Le vit. xi, 7,) was, because of their extreme 
filthiness and their feeding on so many foul and 
impure things. For it is well known how solicit- 
ously the law forbade all filthiness and dirt, even in 
the fields and in the camp, to say nothing of the 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 305 

cities. Now had swine been permitted to be eaten, 
the streets and houses would have become public 
nuisances, as we find them to be in those countries 
where they are nourished and eaten. It is a 
common saying with our Rabbins, that, " the 
mouth of a swine is like the most detestable 
filth." 

The Fat of the Intestines (Levit. iii, 17 ; vii, 24) 
clogs the stomach too much, hinders digestion, 
and generates thick and cold blood, whence it is 
much fitter to be burnt than eaten. (118) 

Blood, and that which dieth of itself, are 
innutritive and difficult of digestion. (Levit. 
vii, 26 ; xvii, 15.) 

That which was torn with beasts, (Levit. 
xvii, 15; xxii, 8,) was nothing else but what 
was beginning to die, (or become a dead carcase,) 
and inclined to putrefaction. 

The distinctions of ruminating or chewing the 
cud and dividing the hoof, among beasts ; and of 
fins and scales among fishes, (Levit. xi,) were not 
the reasons why they were permitted to be eaten ; 
nor the want of them, the causes why they were 
forbidden ; but merely marks whereby the more 
noble and excellent species might be distinguished, 
from those that were inferior or unwholesome. 

The reason why the sinew of the thigh was 
forbidden, is assigned in Scripture. (Genesis 
xxxii, 32.) 

The limb of a living animal, that is, cut off 
whilst the animal was living, was forbidden, 



306 REASONS OF THE 

(Gen. ix, 4,) because it was a proof of a cruel 
disposition, and because some of the Gentile 
kings, at that period, acting from idolatrous 
motives, were accustomed to take an animal, cut 
off one of its limbs, and afterwards eat it. (119) 

Flesh eaten with milk or in milk, (Exodus 
xxiii, 19,) appears to me to have been prohibited, 
not merely because it afforded only gross nourish- 
ment, but also because it savoured of idolatry, 
some of the idolaters probably doing so in their 
worship or at their festivals : and I am the more 
inclined to this opinion from observing that the 
law, in noticing this practice, does it twice, im- 
mediately after having spoken of the three 
solemn annual feasts; (Exod. xxiii, 17, 19; 
xxxiv, 23, 26 ;) " Three times in the year all thy 
males shall appear before the Lord God. — Thou 
shalt not seethe a kid in his mother's milk :" — as 
if it had been said, When ye appear before me in 
your feasts, ye shall not cook your food after the 
manner of the idolaters who are accustomed to 
this practice. This reason appears to me of 
great weight, although, I have not yet found it 
in the Zabian books. (120) 

The precept concerning the slaughtering of 
animals was necessary, because the natural 
nourishment of men consists of the fruits of the 
earth, and of the flesh of animals ; and that the 
kinds of flesh allowed us were the best that could 
be eaten, no physician will question. Since, 
therefore, it was necessary, that animals should 



LAWS OF MOSES. 307 

be killed, for the sake of good food and nourish- 
ment, the law enjoined that kind of death that 
was the easiest, and forbade them to be tortured 
by a cruel and lingering mode of slaughtering ; 
or to have their nostrils slit ; or to have any 
limb cut off, as we have already shown.— In a 
similar manner it was forbidden " to kill a cow 
or ewe, and her young, both in one day," 
(Levit. xxii, 28,) lest the young one should 
happen to be killed before the dam, which would 
have caused her the greatest grief, for in this case 
there is no difference betwixt the grief of men 
and that of irrational animals, the love of a 
mother to her infant not being the effect of reason 
but of instinct, which is found in most animals as 
well as in man. This injunction referred par- 
ticularly to cattle and sheep, because these were 
the only domestic animals lawful to be eaten, 
and of which they could distinguish with 
certainty the mother from her young. The 
cause already mentioned gave rise also to the 
precept respecting birds' nests, (Deut. xxii, 6, 7,) 
for the eggs on which the dam is sitting, or the 
young ones which have need of her, are not, in 
general, permitted to be eaten ; and when the 
dam is let fly, she is not distressed by seeing her 
young ones carried off; it, therefore, frequently 
happens that all are untouched, because that 
which might be taken may not be lawfully eaten. 
If the law then be thus careful to prevent beasts 
and birds from suffering pain and grief, how 
much more mankind ! 



308 



REASONS OF THE 



The precept of covering blood, (Levit. xvii, 13,) 
we have already shown, refers to both wild beasts 
and clean birds. 

As the law gave various precepts relative to 
forbidden meats, so likewise it enjoined precepts 
respecting lawful and unlawful Vows. (Num.xxx.) 
For persons sometimes said, " This bread is for- 
bidden me," or " This flesh is forbidden me ;" 
thus rendering it unlawful for them to eat those 
things ; and this was done by them, in order to 
acquire, by this means, the virtue of contentment 
or continence, and to restrain an immoderate 
appetite : and hence, the saying, that vows are the 
hedge of separation, that is, of abstinence, or of 
a holy and sanctified life. But since women are 
apt to act too hastily, through the ardour of their 
minds, great inconveniences, dissensions, corrup- 
tions, and confusions might be occasioned in 
families, if the right of making vows rested with 
themselves, by one kind of food being lawful for 
the husband but unlawful for the wife, or lawful 
for the daughter but unlawful for the mother ; 
therefore, the authority was given to the head of 
the family in every thing which might produce 
advantage or injury. There was, however, this 
exception, that every woman who was in her 
own power, having neither husband nor father, 
and who had attained the years of maturity, pos- 
sessed the same right of vows as the man. 
(Numb, xxx, 9.) 

The cause and reason of the precepts relating 
to the Nazarite, (Numb, vi,) that is, of abstinence 



LAWS OF MOSES. 309 

from wine, is evident ; for wine has, in many- 
instances, both of former and latter ages, been 
the occasion of death to multitudes, and " many 
strong men have been slain by it ;" (Prov. vii, 26 ;) 
the Prophet also remarks, " They have erred 
through wine." (Isaiah xxviii, 7.) — It was the 
peculiarity of the Nazarite to abstain from 
every kind of drink made from the vine, that he 
might be thereby advanced to greater honour, 
and learn to be content with the things that were 
necessary. He, therefore, who thus abstained, 
was accounted holy, and placed in equal dignity 
with the High- Priest as to sanctity, not daring 
to pollute himself for his deceased father or 
mother. Such was the honour arising from 
abstinence from wine. (121) 



CHAPTER XXIV. 



Of the Causes and Reasons of the Precepts of Ike fourteenth Class. 

^HE precepts included in the fourteenth class, 
are those which we have reviewed in the 
tracts " Of Women," and " Of prohibited 
Marriages, and Incest." — The precept of " Cir- 
cumcision" also must be referred to this class. 

In the preceding pages we have indicated 
the general scope and intention of these pre- 
cepts, and now descend to the particulars of 
them. 

It must be acknowledged by every one, that 
man during the whole of life stands in need of 
friends, as Aristotle has shown in the ninth 
bookof his Ethics. (122) In prosperity, their 
company and conversation are pleasant ; in 
adversity, needful ; and in old age, advantageous. 
It is, however, principally among children and 
relatives that we meet with such love and friend- 
ship ; and, among them only, that brotherly 
affection and mutual benevolence are perfected. 
For when a family are connected with each 
other by the same parents or ancestors, we 
generally find friendship, benevolence, and love 
reigning amongst them ; and to promote these 
is one of the primary objects of the law. 



REASONS OF THE LAWS OF MOSES. 311 

On this account Harlots were prohibited. 
(Levit. xix. 29 ; — Deut. xxiii. 17.) For, by per- 
mitting them, families would have been con- 
founded and destroyed, and their children have 
been regarded by all men as aliens, and have 
been disowned and neglected by their kindred 
and neighbours : and what misfortune worse 
than this could possibly befal them ? — -Public 
brothels were therefore not allowed among the 
Israelites, that lust and wantonness might 
be checked, and the evils arising from them 
repressed. (123) Among the benefits resulting 
from this prohibition, it should also be noted, 
that it prevented many quarrels and contentions. 
For if prostitution had not been forbidden, it 
would frequently have happened that different 
men, meeting at the same time and place, would 
have contended for the same woman, and 
violent quarrels, if not murder either of the 
men or of the prostitute, would have ensued ; 
for so says the Scripture, (Jer. v. 7,) " They 
assembled by troops in the harlots' houses." (124) 
To guard, therefore, against such evils, and to 
preserve the distinctions of families, harlots, 
and whoremongers were condemned, and only 
public marriages allowed ; for if even private 
marriages had been permitted, some would 
have been found who would have intro- 
duced women into their houses, and called 
them their wives. It was, therefore ordained, 
that if a man had privately espoused a woman, 
the marriage should afterwards be publicly cele- 



312 



REASONS OF THE 



brated, as it is said of Boaz, (Ruth iv. 2,) u He 
took ten men of the elders of the city." 

But because it sometimes occurred that they 
did not live together in peace and concord, 
so that the affairs of the family were pre- 
vented from being properly conducted, the 
husband was therefore permitted, in such 
cases, to divorce his wife and send her away : 
(Deut. xxiv. 1 :) and lest, if this had been 
done by word only, or simply dismissing her, 
opportunity might have been afforded to any 
one to quit her husband's house and live in 
adultery, and she and the adulterer affirm that 
she had been previously divorced, it was com- 
manded that no wife should be repudiated but 
by a Bill of Divorcement, as it is said, (Deut. 
xxiv. 1,) " Let him write her a bill of divorce- 
ment." (125) 

The precept respecting the ' Woman suspected 
of Adultery, (Numb. v. 12,) was given because 
many men were apt to be jealous of their wives ; 
for every married woman, being afraid of the 
waters of jealousy, was induced to act circum- 
spectly and guard against every thing that 
might distress the heart of her husband ; for 
even the greater part of innocent women, and 
those who were conscious of rectitude, strove 
with all their power to avoid that disgrace, pre- 
ferring death to the public shame of having their 
heads uncovered, their hair shorn, their gar- 
ments torn down to their breasts, and them- 
selves obliged to stand bound in the sanctuary 



LAWS OF MOSES. 313 

in the sight of the multitude, and the members 
of the Great Sanhedrim; so that many great 
and fatal evils destructive of domestic order 
were prevented, through fear of the disgrace 
attendant on the trial by the Waters of Jealousy. 
(126) 

If a virgin were seduced, the seducer was 
obliged to marry her ; (Exod. xxii. 16, 17 ;) for 
since unmarried females might be married to 
any one, he who had seduced her was, assuredly, 
the most proper person to marry her, being 
the most likely to conceal her dishonour and 
pardon her crime. But if the damsel or her 
parents objected to the marriage, he was only 
bound to pay her the Dowry of Virgins. (127) 
— In the case, however, of a Rape, the punish- 
ment inflicted was heavier ; and if marriage took 
place, the violater was not suffered to put away 
his wife " all his days." (Deut. xxii. 29.) 

The precept of the Levirate, or marriage with 
a brother's widow, (Deut. xxv, 5,) was founded 
on an ancient custom, which was in use before 
the giving of the law, but which the law 
retained, and added the loosing of the Shoe, &c. 
(v. 9,) as ignominious and disgraceful actions 
that might induce the brother-in-law to fulfil 
his duty to his brother's widow, even when 
otherwise reluctant : as it is written in the law, 
(Deut. xxix, 9,) " So shall it be done unto that 
man, that will not build up his brother's house :" 
and again, (v. 10.) " His name shall be 
called in Israel, the house of him that hath his 



314 



REASONS OF THE 



shoe loosed." (129) Such, indeed, is the nature 
of that justice and equity which we have received 
as an inheritance from Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob, that it renders a man unalterable in his 
words, inviolable in his engagements, and leads 
him to give to every one his due : — by which 
there is no difference betwixt the goods of our 
neighbour and our own, whether placed in our 
possession by barter, deposit, or interest; and 
by which there is, lastly, the same reason for 
the dowry of women, as for the wages of the 
hireling, acknowledging no difference betwixt 
him who unjustly withholds the hire of the 
labourer, or the lawful dowry of the wife; betwixt 
him who oppresses or seeks for opportunity to 
defraud the workman of his due, and him who 
attempts to deprive his wife of her dowry. An 
illustrious example of this equity and justice, as 
displayed in the Divine statutes and judgments, 
is afforded in the sentence against him who 
defames his wife. (Deut. xxii. 13, 14.) For it is 
certain, that the man cannot love his wife who 
brands her with infamy, nor does she find favour 
m his eyes. Had he dismissed her according to 
the law of divorce, no one would have hindered 
him ; but in that case he would have been 
obliged to forfeit the dowry, which was what 
he sought to avoid, and hoped by bringing a 
reproach upon her, to retain the fifty shekels 
which the law of God fixed as the dowry of a 
virgin.— The Most High God, therefore, decreed 
that he should be fined double, (Deut. xxii, 19,) 



LAWS OF MOSES. 315 

" They shall amerce him in an hundred shekels 
of silver," according to the maxim of the law, 
that he whom the judges condemn shall pay double 
unto his neighbour, (Exod. xxii. 9,) as in the 
case of false witnesses. Thus, therefore, he who 
defamed his wife with an intention to save the 
fifty shekels he ought to have allowed her, was 
condemned to pay a hundred for unjustly with- 
holding the sum which he was under obligation 
to give her ; and because he had attempted 
to injure her reputation and honour by an infa- 
mous report, the judges were to endeavour to 
apprehend him, and punish and deprive him of 
his authority and dignity, by scourging him with 
thongs made of an ox-hide, as it is said, (Deut. 
xxii. 18,) " They shall scourge (or chastise) 
him ;" — and because, in attempting to put her 
away, he had sought only the indulgence of his 
passions, and illicit gratification, on account of 
his dislike to her, he was obliged, as a punish- 
ment, to retain her as his wife, and " not put 
her away all his days." (130) — Thus, by these 
means, such depraved dispositions are cured, 
the Divine precepts themselves being the physi- 
cians. Nor are any of the manifest ends of 
justice or equity either exceeded or forgotten; 
for what could be more equitable than the judg- 
ment respecting the man who defamed his wife in 
order to deprive her of her right ; or that of the 
thief who obtained his neighbour's goods by 
false pretences ; or lastly, that touching the 
false witness who designed the injury of another, 



316 REASONS OF THE 

although he did not accomplish his object ? Of 
every one of these the judgment is the same. 
The wise ordination of God is, therefore, to be 
admired in his Judgments, as well as in his Works ; 
and so saith the Scripture, (Deut. xxxii, 4,) 
" His work is perfect :" for as his works are most 
perfect, so his judgments are most righteous. 
But our minds are too limited to comprehend 
either the perfection of his works or the equity 
of his judgments ; for whether we study the 
bodies of animals, or the motions of the celestial 
spheres, we can apprehend only parts of his 
works ; so in like manner we can apprehend but 
little of his judgments ; and that of which we are 
ignorant, far exceeds that which we know, with 
regard to both of them. 

But to return to our former subject. Every 
kind of illicit Concubinage was prohibited, in 
order to check unlawful desires, restrain 
libidinous gratifications, and immoderate indulg- 
ence even in lawful pleasures ; and if temperance 
were enjoined in that which was according to 
nature and permitted by the law of God, how 
much more strictly ought that to be forbidden 
which is unnatural, detestable and filthy, and only 
intended to gratify the most insatiable lust, as 
sodomy and bestiality ! (Levit. xviii, 22, 23 ; 
xx, 13, 15.) 

Reasons of a similar nature existed also for the 
prohibition of incestuous marriages ; (Lev. xviii ;) 
for the persons forbidden to be married to each 
other, being such as usually lived together in the 



LAWS OF MOSES. 317 

same house, opportunity for criminality would 
be easily found, and though associating with each 
other the judge could not have separated them 
from each other ; so that if such persons could 
have married, like others who were free and 
disengaged, and no punishment had been affixed 
to their marriage, the greater part of men would 
have been in danger of living in a state of constant 
inchastity. By the absolute prohibition, there- 
fore, of all such marriages, under the heaviest 
. denunciations of death by the House of Judg- 
ment and of Excision, without the least licence 
or permission to be hoped for, every one knew 
that he ought cautiously to guard against any 
such intention, or even suffering the thought to 
rest in his mind. For, that incestuous intercourse 
might easily take place among the persons for- 
bidden to marry with each other, is certain ; since 
a man who has a wife, has very generally her 
mother, or grandmother, or daughter, or niece 
living with them, and is in their company on 
almost all occasions ; and, on the other hand, the 
wife frequently converses with her husband's 
brothers, or father, or son. It is also as clear as 
the light, that a man brought up among his 
sisters, and aunts, and other relatives must be very 
generally in their company. On these accounts, 
therefore, all marriages betwixt near relations 
was forbidden. (131) 

Another reason for prohibiting such marriages, 
I apprehend, was to recommend modesty and 
ohastitv. For such an union betwixt the root 
X 



318 REASONS OF THE 

and the branch is the most glaring profligacy; for 
instance, for a man to marry his mother or 
daughter ; therefore, marriage betwixt root and 
branch was forbidden. Nor does it constitute 
any difference whether the root marry the 
branch, or the branch the root, or whether they 
meet in marriage with a third person as when 
any one marries both root and branch. On this 
account, a man was forbidden to marry a 
woman and her daughter ; or, the wife of the 
father and the wife of the son, because these 
were marriages to root and branch. — Brothers 
were considered as root and branch ; and it was, 
therefore, forbidden to marry a Wife's Sister 
and a Brother's Wife, because this was uniting 
two individuals to a third person, who were, 
as it were, root and branch. 

Besides, since marriage among brothers was 
considered as root and branch, and even as one 
body, and was therefore forbidden ; it was like- 
wise forbidden to marry a Mother's Bister, 
because she was regarded as being the same 
as a Mother; and a Father's Sister, who was con- 
sidered as near as a Father. — But as neither a 
Father's Brother's Daughter, nor a Father's 
Sister's Daughter were forbidden, so for the 
same reason neither a Brother's Daughter nor 
a Sister's Daughter were forbidden. But the 
reason why the Father's Brother was permitted 
to marry the Wife of the Brother's Son, and 
yet the Brother's Son forbidden to marry his 
Father's Brother's Wife, is the same as that 



LAWS OF MOSES. 319 

which has already been given, namely, that 
the Brother's Son was usually much in the 
house of his Father's Brother, and his fami- 
liarity and association with his Father's Bro- 
ther's Wife, equal to that which he had with his 
Brother's Wife ; whilst the Father's Brother did 
not so commonly live in the house of his Bro- 
ther's Son, nor was there equal intimacy betwixt 
the Father's Brother, and the Brother's Son's 
Wife : and is it not also easy to be seen, that it 
was because there was the same freedom and 
intercourse betwixt a Father and his Soil's Wife, 
and the Son and the Father's Wife, that they 
were equally prohibited from marriage with 
each other under penalty of the same kind of 
death ? 

It is unnecessary to enter into any particular 
discussion respecting the prohibitory precepts 
relating to intercourse with a Wife during her 
separation, and with the Wife of another Man, 
(Levit. xviii, 19, 20,) since the reasons of them 
must be evident to every one. For, every 
impure imagination and thought, as well as 
every immodest word, or look, and action, are 
altogether condemned ; and if we have been led 
unintentionally into thinking on such subjects, 
it becomes our duty to turn our thoughts to 
other objects resolutely and perse veringly, until 
we have succeeded in banishing the unchaste 
thoughts from our mind. Hence, the saying of 
our Wise Men : — •" My son, if impurity meet 
x 2 



320 



REASONS OF THE 



thee, force it to school ; if it be iron, melt it ; 
if it be flint, break it to pieces ; as it is said, " Is 
not my word like as a fire, saith the Lord; and 
like a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces V 
(Jer. xxiii, 29.) — He addresses these words to 
his son, by way of reproof and direction; as if 
he had said, " When thou art tempted to impu- 
rity and distressed by it, go into the school : — 
there thou mayest read, and learn, and inquire, 
and dispute, and thy trouble shall cease." — Nor 
are such admonitions as these confined to the 
law, but are also urged by moralists and philo- 
sophers ; thus Aristotle, in his Ethics and Rhe- 
toric, calls those who are given to appetite and 
lust, — " Worthless Men ;" and speaks of the 
u Touch" as the sense, which is the approbium 
of our nature, by inciting to drunkenness, glut- 
tony, and lust. 

To the same excellent and distinguished prin- 
ciple of purity, a virtue worthy of universal 
imitation, may be traced the injunctions of our 
Wise Men to shun the sight of any object likely 
to excite impure feelings.^ This also appears 
to me to be the reason why God forbade " cattle 
to gender with a diverse kind ;" (Levit. xix, 19 ;) 
for it is certain, that no creature, generally 
speaking, hath a desire to mix with a creature 
of another kind ; and, therefore, men ought not to 
promote such desires, and our law guarded every 

* " Secundum excellentetn et praestantissimam hara.c, omni- 
bus meritd sectandum, virtutem praeceperunt quoque nobis 
Sapientes nostri, ne intueamui- jumenta et volucres eo mo- 
menta et tempore, quo carnaliter commiscentur." 



LAWS OF MOSES. 



321 



Israelite against laying aside his dignity and hon- 
our, by submitting to corrupt and immodest con- 
duct, which was not suffered to be named, except 
from necessity, and assuredly no necessity existed 
for the heterogeneous mixtures of animals. I 
think it even probable, that this was the very 
reason for prohibiting animals of different species 
being yoked together in labour, as when the 
law says, (Deut. xxii, 10,) " Thou shalt not 
plough with an ox and an ass together ;" because, 
if thus yoked, they might at one time or other 
mix with each other, and these two kinds of 
animals were named from being in most com- 
mon and frequent use, but were intended to 
represent all others. 

In our opinion also, the principal reason for 
Circumcision was of a similar nature, and 
intended, not as some have conjectured, to sup- 
ply a defect of nature, but a defect in morals ; 
not to remove what was superfluous, but to 
restrain what was impetuous ; and by a painful 
rite to check an evil propensity ; for our 
father Abraham was the first who commenced 
the practice, of whom it is recorded how much 
he feared sin, and how holy and pious, and 
chaste he was in all his conduct. (134) 

Another important reason for Circumcision 
was, that those of their own religion, that is, 
those who believed in the Unity of God, might 
have a certain mark to distinguish them from 
others, and unite them to each other ; so that 
those who would have professed to belong to 
them, merely to gain some personal advantage, 



322 



REASONS OF THE 



or to accomplish some sinister purpose te the 
injury of others, might be prevented by a rite, 
which was not like a slight scratch upon the arm, 
but so painful and difficult in its nature, that no 
one would suffer it to be performed, either on 
himself or his children, but on account of his 
faith and religion. 

Besides this, we constantly see how intensely 
those are attached to each other, and how ready 
they are to aid one another, who have a com- 
mon sign of being in covenant. In like manner, 
Circumcision is the covenant made by our father 
Abraham, upon the faith of the Unity of God ; 
and all who are circumcised, enter by it into 
the covenant of Abraham, believing the Unity 
of God, as God hath said, (Gen. xvii, 7,) " I 
will be a God unto thee, and to thy seed after 
thee :" — and this reason is at least as strong 
and valid as the former, if not more so. 

The reason for performing the rite of Circum- 
cision in Infancy was threefold ; for, first, if 
it had been delayed until the infant had grown 
up, it perhaps might never have been done : 
secondly, because the operation was not so pain- 
ful in an infant as in an adult, the skin more 
tender and the imagination less active, — an adult 
dreading and fearing every operation which is 
in prospect: and, thirdly, because the affection 
of parents for their children whilst only infants 
is seldom or never so strong, as when they 
have been longer associated with them; the 
faculty, w T hich is the cause of parental affection, 
not being so powerfully impressed when an 



LAWS OF MOSES. 323 

infant first sees the light, as when the child has 
been present with his parents for some years, 
for the impression on the mind increases by con- 
stantly seeing him, and therefore grows with 
its growth ; but afterwards, as he advances 
farther into life, and attains to years of maturity, 
it decreases : consequently, if Circumcision had 
been deferred for two or three years, it would 
frequently happen that it would have been alto- 
gether neglected, through the affection of the 
parents for their children ; but about the time of 
an infant's birth, the affection, especially of the 
father, to whom the precept is given, is not 
become strong. 

Circumcision was also commanded to be per- 
formed on the Eighth Day, because all crea- 
tures, when recently born, are so extremely 
feeble, that they may be almost regarded as 
those that are not yet born, until the eighth 
day, when they begin to be numbered among 
those who see the light of the world. This is 
also remarked with reference to beasts, as it is 
said, (Exod. xxii. 30,) " Seven days it shall be 
with his dam ;" as if before the end of seven 
days it was only an abortion. — It is, therefore, 
«lear and decisive, without any conjecture, that it 
was on this account that Circumcision was ordered 
to take place at the end of seven days. (135) 

Animals which were to be offered in sacrifice, 
were not to be castrated, or similarly injured, 
as is expressly stated in the law, (Lev. xxii, 24,) 
since all things enjoined by the statutes and 



324 



REASONS OF THE 



judgments were to be done justly and equitably. 
(136')— Eunuchs, and those who had received 
certain injuries, (Deut. xxiii, 1,) were forbidden 
to marry Israelites, because of the impropriety 
of and consequent sterility of such marriages. 
Neither was a Bastard suffered to marry an 
Israelite, that by the stigma affixed to the 
conduct -of the parents, all inchastity might be 
repressed, and, the father see that, by the com- 
mission of such acts of wickedness, he brought 
an indelible stain upon the whole of his family. 
Indeed, the Seed of Israel has been honoured 
by every people and tongue, for holding illegi- 
timate persons in contempt and refusing to 
marry them. 

It was to promote the honour and dignity 
of the Priesthood, that the Priests were for- 
bidden to marry a Prostitute or Profane Woman, 
or a woman who had been divorced from 
her husband. The High-Priest was not even 
permitted to marry a Widow, (Levit. xxi, 14,) 
or one who had been espoused, because he was 
the Principal and Head. 

If illegitimate persons were forbidden to enter 
the congregation of the Lord, how much more 
Male and Female Slaves? (137) 

The reason why it was forbidden to contract 
marriages with other nations, is assigned in 
the Scripture, when it says, (Deut. vii, 3 ; 
Exod. xxxiv, 16.) " Neither shalt thou make mar- 
riages with them ; thy daughter thou shalt not 
give unto his son, nor his daughter shalt thou 



LAWS OF MOSES. 325 

take unto thy son : for they will turn away 
thy son from following me, that they may 
serve other gods." 

The great multitude of precepts, the special 
reasons of which are concealed from us, were 
undoubtedly given, in general, to separate us 
from idolatry ; and the reason why in certain 
cases we do not discover the benefit arising from 
any particular precepts, is, because those things 
we learn from report are not as w T ell understood as 
those which we know from personal observation. 
On this account,what we have learned concerning 
the rites of the Zabii from tradition and their 
books, is not as certain as what we have seen 
practised ; and more especially so, as their 
sects and opinions have been blotted out for 
more than a thousand years. (138) But if, on 
the contrary, we had heard and known all their 
practices circumstantially, we should most 
certainly have discovered the reasons and wis- 
dom of many of those sacrifices and purifica- 
tions of which we are at present ignorant. I 
have, however, no doubt, but all those ordi- 
nances were enjoined in order to erase from the 
memory of man, those false and pernicious 
opinions, and to abolish those useless practices, 
which would have consumed our days in vanity : 
for those opinions prevented men from thinking 
upon and attending to the study and considera- 
tion of rational things, and left them no leisure 
for useful employments, as our Prophets have 
taught us. Thus Samuel (1 Sam. xii, 21,) has 



326 REASONS OF THE 

exhorted us, " Turn ye not aside ; for then 
should ye go after vain things, which cannot 
profit or deliver, for they are vain :" — and 
Jeremiah, (ii, 8,) " They walked after things 
that do not profit :" and (xvi, 19 :) " Surely 
our fathers have inherited lies, vanity, and things 
wherein there is no profit." — Consider, then, 
how corrupt and pernicious such a system must 
have been, and whether it was not necessary for 
every man to exert all his influence to destroy it ? 
— Such, therefore, was the design of the greater 
part of the precepts, being intended, as we have 
already shown, to banish those depraved opin- 
ions, and to lessen that excessive labour, and 
trouble, and fatigue to which those men were 
subjected in the worship of th ir gods ; and even 
those precepts, whether negative or affirmative, 
the particular reasons of which are not known 
to us, are only so many remedies and medicines 
for diseases which then existed, but which, 
(thank God !) have not come to our know- 
ledge, as every one will be convinced who pos- 
sesses true perfection and knows the truth of 
what God has declared, saying, " I said not 
unto the seed of Jacob, seek ye me in vain." 
(Isaiah xlv, 19.) 

We have now shown the particulars and 
reasons of this concluding class of precepts, and 
have left none of them untouched, except in a 
very few instances, the causes of which may 
be easily gathered from what we have written. 
■ — The Reasons of the Precepts are ended. (139) 



NOTES 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



NOTES 

AND 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

NOTE I.— Page 14-3. 

WHILST the Public Schools or Academies of the 
Jews continued to flourish in the East, the Doctors 
or Teachers of the Law were honoured with various distinctions 
and titles, and treated with the most profound respect ; but 
since the destruction of their schools in Mesopotamia, about the 
year 1040, by the Mohammedan princes, the men of learning 
and those who minister in the synagogues, assume only the title 
of Rabbi or Wise-Man. 

The implicit confidence formerly placed in their Doctors, or 
Wise-Men, will be sufficiently demonstrated by observing that a 
Wise-Man took the precedency of the King, and that it was pro- 
verbially said of their instructions, that " The words of the 
Elders are weightier than the words of the Law." — See Bas- 
nage's Hist, of the Jews, B. iii. Chap. 29- p. 256, folio — Lewis's 
Antiquities of the Hebrew Reptiblic, Vol. i. B. ii, Ch. 22. p. 
237, 8vo.— -Lightfoot, Horse Heb. Works, Vol. ii. p. 199, folio. 

NOTE II— Page 143. 

The judicious Hooker expresses himself on this subject with 
his usual ability and learning. — "Because the point about 
which we strive is, the quality of our laws, our first entrance 
hereinto cannot better be made than with consideration of the 
nature of law in general, and of that law which giveth life 
unto all the rest which are commendable, just, and good, 
namely the Law whereby the Eternal himself doth work. — 
All things that are, have some operation not violent or casual. 
Neither doth any thing ever begin to exercise the same, with- 
out some fore-conceived end for which he worketh : and the 



330 VOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

end which it worketh for is not obtained, unless the work be 
also fit to obtain it by. For unto every end every operation will 
not serve. That which doth assign unto each thing the kind, 
that which doth moderate the force and power, that which 
doth appoint the form and measure of working, the same we 
term a law. So that no certain end could ever be obtained, 
unless the actions whereby it is attained were regular, that is to 
say, made suitable, fit, and correspondent unto their end, by 
some canon, rule or law ; which thing doth first take place in 
the works even of God himself. All things therefore do work 
after a sort according to law : all other things according to a 
law whereof some superior unto whom they are subject is 
Author ; only the works and operations of God have him both 
their Worker, and for the law whereby they are wrought. The 
being of God is a kind of Law to his working : for that per- 
fection which God is, giveth perfection to that he doth. The 
wise and learned amongst the very Heathens themselves have 
all acknowledged some first cause, whereupon originally the 
being of all things dependeth. Neither have they otherwise 
spoken of that cause, than as an Agent which knowing what and 
why it worketh, observeth in working a most exact Order or 
Law. This much is signified by that which Homer mentioneth, 
Aiog S 1 ereXsilo, ' Jupiter's counsel was accomplished :' — thus 
much acknowledged by Mercurius Trismegistus, tov Travlu 
xo<rp.ov £7roiY)<rsv o Aypiupyos « %sp<riv aXXa. Xoyco, * The 
Creator made the whole world, not with hands, but by reason,' 
(Stob. in eclog. phys.J — thus much confest by Anaxagoras and 
Plato, terming the Maker of the world an Intellectual worker.' 
Finally, the Stoics, although imagining the First Cause of all 
things to be fire, hold, nevertheless, that the same fire, having art, 
did, o^w /3a$j£e»v eth ysvecei xoo-jU.8, ' proceed by a certain and 
a set way in the making of the world.' They all confess there- 
fore in the working of the first cause, that Counsel is used, Rea- 
son followed, a Way observed, that is to say, constant Order and 
Law is kept, whereof itself must needs be author unto itself; 
otherwise it should have some worthier and higher to direct it, 
and so could not itself be the first. Being the first, it can have 
no other than itself to be the author of that Law which it wil- 
lingly worketh by : God, therefore, is a Law both to himself, 
and to all others. God worketh nothing without cause. All 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 331 

those things which are done by him, have some end for which 
they are done ; and the end for which they are done, is a 
reason of his will to do them. His will had not inclined 
to create Woman, but that he saw it could not be well if 
she were not created, Non est bonum, ' It is not good man 
should be alone ;' (Gen. ii, 18;) therefore, let us make an helper 
for him. That, and nothing else, is done by God, which to leave 
undone were not so good. If, therefore, it be demanded, why 
God having power and ability infinite, the effects notwith- 
standing of that power are all so limited as we see they are ?, the 
reason hereof is, the end which he hath proposed, and the law 
whereby His wisdom hath stinted the effects of His power, in 
such sort, that it doth not infinitely, but correspondently unto 
that end for which it worketh, even all things, XP^ 00 ^ m most 
decent and comely sort, all things in measure, number and weight. 
The general end of God's external working, is the exercise of 
his most glorious and abundant virtue : which abundance doth 
show itself in variety, and for that cause this variety is often- 
times in Scripture exprest by the name of riches, (Eph. i. 7, 
— *Phil. iv.19, — Coloss.ii. 3.) — ' The Lord hath madeall things for 
his own sake' (Prov. xvi. 4.) — Not that any thing is made to be 
beneficial unto him, but all things for him to show beneficence 
and grace in them. The particular drift of every act proceeding 
externally from God, we are not able to discern, and therefore 
cannot always give the proper and certain reason of his works. 
Howbeit, undoubtedly, a proper and certain reason there is of 
every finite work of God, inasmuch as there is a law imposed 
upon it, which, if there were not, it should be infinite even as 
the Worker himself is. They err, therefore, who think that 
of the will of God to do this or that, there is no reason besides 
his Will. Many times no reason known to us ; but that there is 
no reason thereof, I judge it most unreasonable to imagine, 
inasmuch as he worketh all things xaru tov j3&Xyjv t« §eXy\fi.cilo$ 
aur«, not only according to his own will, but the counsel of his 
own will: (Eph. i, 2 :) and whatsoever is done with counsel or 
wise resolution, hath, of necessity, some reason why it should 
be done, albeit that reason be to us in some things so secret, 
that it forceth the wit of man to stand, as the Blessed Apostle 
himself doth, amazed thereat, the depth of the riches, both of 
the wisdom and knowledge of God ? How unsearchable are his. 



339. NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

judgments ?" &c. (Rom. xi, 33.)—Ecclesiaslicall Politie, pp.3 — 5. 
Lond. folio. 

NOTE III— Page 145. 

Bereschith Raeba is the title of two Commentaries 
on the Book of Genesis : the earlier of them composed by 
It. Ushaia, the disciple of R. Judah Hakkadosh, or the holy, who 
collected the Mishna, and was written about A. D. 210. The 
other was compiled by R. Bar Nacbman, who flourished about 
A. D. 300. This has been printed in Italy, at Venice, and 
Constantinople; and in 1608, at Cracow, with another cele- 
brated Commentary entitled Mattanoth-Chehunnah. The Bere- 
shith Rabba is chiefly a collection of explanations of the Mishna, 
and of allegorical and historical expositions by former Rabbis. 
— Buxtorfii Bibliotheca Rabbinica, p. 43, Franeq. 1696, 8vo. 

NOTE IV Page 146. 

Besides the Mishnical treatises, and especially the tract 
Cholin in the Seder Kedashim, the Jews have another small 
treatise on Butchery, in which, according to Buxtorf, the most 
special and important regulations are recorded. To this book 
they constantly refer, and if a case of difficulty occur consult 
some learned Rabbin. When any one has for a considerable 
time attended one who practises butchery, and received a certi- 
ficate of his attendance and attention, and has diligently 
studied and become accurately acquainted with this treatise, he 
is promoted by the Rabbi to the office of Butcher, and a 
diploma or testimonial granted him, certifying that he is skilled 
in the art of Butchery, and granting him permission to exercise 
{t when and where he pleases. " I have seen," says this author, 
" one of these Testimonials conceived in the following terms : 
— "This day Qthe month and year also being expressed] I 
have tried and examined the worthy and excellent N. son of N. 
and have found him expert and diligent, both in the knowledge 
and practice of the art of Butchery, I therefore, hereby, grant 
him permission to kill and inspect cattle ; and allow whatsoever 
he kills and inspects to be freely eaten. Nevertheless, with this 
injunction, that for the space of one whole year from the pre- 
sent time he shall once in each week diligently read over the 



STOTES AND ILLUSTltATIONS. 333 

Riles of Slaying and Inspection; that in the second year he shall 
read over that treatise once in each month ; and that during the 
rest of his life he shall read it once in every three months."' 1 
"Witness Rabbi N— '." 
Buxtorrh Synagoga Judaica, Cap. xxxvi, pp. 6 12, 6 13. Basil 
l66l, 8vo. — See also Surenhusii Mischna. Tom, v. Traclatus de 
Prqfanis, pp. 114 — 154. Amstel. 1702, folio. — Lewis's Antiq. 
Heb. Rep. Vol. 3, B. 6, ch. 20, p. 21 6,— and Wotton's 
Miscellaneous Discourses, Vol. 1, p. 151. 

NOTE V — Page 148. 

The written Law, contained in the Pentateuch, is dis- 
tributed by Jewish lawyers into 613 Precepts. Of these, 365 
prohibit unlawful things, and are termed negative ; the remain- 
ing 248 enjoin things to be done, and are called affirmative 
precepts. These only have the power and authority of Law, 
and form the foundation of the whole Jewish jurisprudence ; 
but since these could not be applied to every case that might 
arise, so as to decide correctly in every instance, hence 
originated, as subsidiary aids, the Constitutions of the Prophets 
and Wise Men, the Decrees of the Sanhedrim, the Decisions 
of the Judges, and the Expositions of the Doctors, similar to 
the Rescripts of the Emperors, and the Responsa Prudentium 
or opinions of the Civilians, of the Roman Civil Law ; or the 
Legal Reports of British Courts of Judicature — These sub- 
sidiary judgments constitute the Jewish Oral Law, pretended 
to have been transmitted by Moses to Joshua, and by him to 
the Elders, and from them conveyed by traditionary relation 
to the time of Judah Hakkadosh, the compiler of the Mishna. 
Prideaux, Prsefat. in R. Moses Maimonides De Jure Pauperis, 
Oxon. 1679, 4/o. — See also Prelim. Diss. I. of the present 
work, page 22. 

NOTE V.— Page 155. 

See Dissertation II, On the Zabii. — Page 36. 

NOTE VL— Page 155. 

Cuth or Cutha, afterwards called Chaldea, appears to 
have derived its name from the Patriarch Cush, and by an 
Y 



334 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

interchange of letters, frequent in the Babylonish dialect, to 
have been denominated Cuth or Cutha. Hence the Samaritans 
were called Cuthites by the Jews, because, when Shalmaneser, 
King of Assyria, had besieged and carried captive the inha- 
bitants of the city of Samaria, he re-peopled the city with 
people from various countries, among whom were the Cuthites. 
From the hatred subsisting between the Jews and Samaritans, 
the Jews not unfrequently applied the term, by way of con- 
tempt, to the Gentiles in general. — Hyde, De Vet. Pers. C ii- 
pp. 36-40. 

NOTE VII— Page 156. 

The Nabathceans were a people of Arabia Petraea, 
strongly addicted to the Zabian idolatries and superstitions. 
The learned Hammer, Secretary to the Imperial Legation at 
Constantinople, has translated into English from the Arabic, a 
curious work on " Ancient Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Charac- 
ters," written by Ahmad Bin Abubekr Bin Wahshih, by birth 
a Nabathaean, but by profession a Mohammedan, who flourished 
in the ninth century, and translated several of the books 
of the ancient Nabathaeans into Arabic. In the work 
already mentioned, he has presented the reader with the old 
Nabathaean hieroglyphic, secret, or magical alphabet, as well as 
several other hieroglyphical alphabets made use of by the ancient 
Chaldeans, Sabaeans, or Zabii, &c. — See Hammer's Ancient 
Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Characters explained. London> 
1806, 4/o. 

NOTE VIII— Page 156. 

The following legendary story taken from the Bereshith 
Rabba x Hs translated by the animated pen of Hyman Hurwitz 
in his " Hebrew Tales :" 

Abraham being brought before Nim?-od, was urged by the 
tyrant to worship the fire. " Great King," said the Father of 
the Faithful, " would it not be better to worship mater ? It is 
mightier than fire, having the power to extinguish it." — 
" Worship the water then," said Nimrod. — " Methinks," 
rejoined Abraham, " it would be more reasonable to worship the 
clouds, since they carry the waters, and throw them down upon 



NOTES AND TLLUSTJ!ATIO\ T S. 335 

the earth." — " Well, then/' said the impatient king, " worship 
the clouds, which, by thine own confession, possess great 
power." — " Nay," continued Abraham, " if power is to be the 
object of adoration, the preference ought to be given to the 
wind, which, by its greater force, scatters the clouds and 
drives them before it." — ." I see," said Nimrod, " we shall 
never have done with this prattler. Worship the wind, then, 
and we will pardon thy former profanations." — " Be not angry, 
great King," said Abraham, " I cannot worship the fire, nor 
the water, nor the clouds, nor the wind, nor any of the things 
thou callest gods : The power they possess is derived from a 
Being, not only most powerful, but full of Mercy and Love. 
The Creator of heaven and earth. Him alone will I worship." 
— " Well then," said the tyrant, " since thou refusest to adore 
the fire, thou sbalt speedily be made sensible of its mighty 
force."— He ordered Abraham to be thrown into a fiery fur- 
nace. But God delivered him from the raging flames, and 
made him a source of blessing to many nations.— Hurwitz's 
Hebrew Tales, p. 142. 

NOTE IX.— Page 157- 

The doctrine of an Anima Mundi, or soul of the world, 
was maintained also by the Stoics and other ancient sects. 
Manilius, who flourished in the reign of Augustus, in his 
astronomical poem on the Sphere, thus states their sentiments : 



-God, the World's Almighty Soul, 



By secret methods rules and guides the whole ; 

By unseen passes, he himself conveys 

Through all the mass, and every part oheys. 

To proper patients he kind agents brings : 

In various leagues binds disagreeing things. 

Makes some powers act, and some receive their force ; 

And thus whilst Nature keeps her vital course, 

Though different powers the several things divide, 

The world seems one, and all its parts allied. 



Manilius. B. I. vi. 



In a curious work on " Ancient Alphabets and Hiero- 
glyphics," written in Arabic by Ibn Wahshih, and translated 



336 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



by M. Joseph Hammer, there is the subjoined singularly 
formed Hieroplyphic symbol, called by Kircher, Anima 
Mundl 




Of this symbol, the author says, " This figure is expressive 
of the most sublime secret, called originally, Bahumed and 
Kharuf, (or Calf,) viz. The Secret of the Nature of the World, or 
The Secret of Secrets, or The Beginning and Return of every 
thing." — On which, M. Hammer remarks : " ft is superfluous 
to recall here to the memory of the reader the great antiquity 
and mysterious sense of the idolatrous veneration in which the 
Calf has been continually held ;■ — or to repeat any thing that 
has been said on the worship of Apis in Egypt, renewed by 
the Israelites in the worship of the Calf, and preserved, at 
this moment, in the mysterious rites of the Druses. Let us 
remember only a circumstance which shows wonderfully the 
concordance and relation of the name of Bahumid and its 
translation. — Bahumed or Bahumet is related, in the History of 
the Templars, to have been one of their secret and mysterious 
formulas, with which they addressed the idol of a Calf in 
their secret assemblies. Different etymological explanations and 
descriptions of this word have been brought forward, but none 
surely so satisfactory as this, which proves that the Templars 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 337 

had some acquaintance with the hieroglyphics, probably 
acquired in Syria." — Hammer's Ancient Alphabets and 
Hieroglyphic Characters explained. London, 1806, 4to. Pref* 
p. xiii. and pp. 22, 23. 

NOTE X Page 157- 

In subsequent ages, Aristotle, and other Philosophers, 
defended the erroneous position, and believed that " the world 
was eternal, without beginning or end." — Enfield's History 
of Philosophy, vol. i. B. ii. Ch. ix. Sect. 1. 

NOTE XI.— Page 157* 

Ibn Wahshih says, "The Chaldeans were the wisest men 
of their times, being well acquainted with every science and 
art. Their first equals and rivals were the Curds. But, how- 
ever, there is as great a difference between these two nations, 
as between a glow-worm and a fixed star. The first superiority 
the Curds had over them, was in agriculture and botany. 
They pretended to descend from the sons of Bineshad, and to 
have got possession of the books of Adam on Agriculture, and 
of the books of Safrith and Coothami. They pretended to have 
all the seven antediluvian books inspired by heaven. — They 
pretended to possess the art of magic and talismans, but this is 
not so ; for all these sciences were handed down to them from 
the Chaldeans, who first cultivated them. This pretension to 
the antiquity of their learning, is the reason of the inveterate 
hatred between the Chaldeans and Curds." — Hammer's Ancient 
Alphabets, &c. p. 52. 

NOTE XU.-Page 159. 

The remarks of Dr. Boothroyd on the different terms 
applied to those who practised divination in some or other of 
its forms, deserve attention. — "Connected with the worship of 
Idols," he observes, " were the various practices of augury, 
divination, soothsaying, &c. — 'The most general expression 
for Divining is D D p (Kasas.) It denotes either to attempt to 
foretel events by some kind of arts, or to conjecture by pru- 
dence and experience. (Comp. Deut. xviii. 10. with Prov. xvL 



358 KOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

10, and Isai. iii. 2.)—Michaelis thought it denoted the Harus- 
pex, one who divined by inspecting the liver and other viscera 
of sacrificed animals ; Dathe, divining by the lot ; and Rosen- 
miiller, divining by arrows. (Ezek. xxi. 26.) I am satisfied 
that it denotes rather the Act of Divination in general, some 
of the various kinds being afterwards mentioned ; as,— 
1. Observer of the Clouds. — By the appearance of the clouds 
and of the sky, the state of the weather may often be con- 
jectured ; and from this, perhaps, arose the practice of pre- 
tending to foretell other events. — 2. Enchanter, one who divined 
by serpents ; probably, having tamed them, he divined by 
their motions. Bales renders ' Juggler.' — 3. Sorcerer, one 
who divined by using some kind of drugs. — 4. Charmer, one 
who composed magical spells, to guide and protect. It is 
probable that they were composed in verse ; which the people 
repeated. (Psalm lviii. 6.) — 5. Ventriloquist or Pythonist — 
6. Wizard. — 7. Necromancer. — The Greek Translators uni- 
formly render the first term as I have done : and, I suspect, 
that those who possessed this art, were also denominated 
Wizards, or the Knowing Ones, and Necromancers, as pre- 
tending to consult the dead, (i Sam. xxiii. 7, &c.) — That 
persons possessing this art would be regarded as under some 
kind of Divine influence, by an ignorant race, is very natural ; 
and it is not improbable, that they might believe themselves 
to be so. Similar superstitious arts obtained among all the 
heathen nations, and still exist among them, and even among 
ignorant men in Christian countries." — Boothroyd's New 
Family Bible and Improved Version, Introd. Part iii, Ch. vi, 
p. 52, vol. i. Pontefract, 1818, Mo. 

NOTE XIII.— Page J 62. 

This is the same author whose work on Ancient 
Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Characters has been translated from 
the Arabic by the learned Hammer, Secretary to the Imperial 
Legation at Constantinople. — By Hammer, his name is given 
as, Ahmad Bin Abubeku Bin Wahshih, and by abbreviations, 
Ibn Wahshih. Kircher calls him Aben Vaschia and Aben 
Wahschia. — He was a Nabathaean by birth, and though a 
Mohammedan, translated several works from his native tongue 
into Arabic, amongst which arc enumerated, one on Scientific 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



339 



Instruction, entitled, The Tree of Paradise, another on 
Natural Magic, treating of the knowledge of the particular 
properties of plants, metals, animals, &c. entitled Taufinut, 
that is, Putrefactions : and the one referred to by Maimonides, 
deemed the most classical of their Agricultural works, called, 
The Agriculture of the Nabathceans. Besides these, he also 
translated two works from the Curdic language into Arabic, 
one of them, On the Culture of the Vine arid the Palm tree; the 
other, On Water, and the Means of finding it out in unknown 
Ground. But that which we are inclined to regard as his most 
important work is the treatise on Ancient Alphabets and 
Hieroglyphic Characters, in which he has furnished the reader 
with much curious and recondite information on these sub- 
jects; and which completely proves the astonishing influence 
and extent of the Zabian astrological and idolatrous supersti- 
tions — This laborious performance, which occupied him 
twenty-one years, he deposited in the treasury of the Calif 
Abd-ul-malik bin Marrvdn, in the 241 st year of the Hijrah, 
about A. D. 863. — The translation by M= Hammer is beau- 
tifully printed, with the Arabic text, at the press of Buhner 
and Co. in Mo. 

NOTE XXV.— Page 1 63. 

Landseer, in his Sabcean Researches, has attempted to show 
that the word Ashre, rendered " Groves" in our translation 
of the Scriptures, means a kind of Orrery or Armillary Machine 
used for purposes of divination ; and supposes them to have 
been probably about the height of a man, with small balls 
branching off curvedly from the sustaining rod or axis ; and 
referring to 2 Kings xxi, he says, " The Sabaeau Ashre appears 
to have been erected within the precincts of the temple, where 
the altars also were built; but besides this — perhaps immove- 
able — armillary machines, which, for the purpose of divination, 
Manasseh had constructed in the courts of the temple, he had 
also a small copy, or ' graven image' of the Ashre within ;— 
doubtless to assist in the celebration of those Sabaean rites, 
which were performed in the interior during his idolatrous reign, 
and which are described by Ezekiel : For there can be no rea- 
sonable doubt, that the idolatries which the Prophet saw in vision 
on the banks of the Chebar, were those with which the temple 



m 



NOTES AND ILLUSTltATIONS. 



at Jerusalem had really been polluted." — Landseer's Sabaean 
Researches, pp. 26*2 — 307. 

It is certain that the word translated " Gi-oves," cannot always 
be interpreted to mean a Grove of Trees, since we read of "set- 
ting up Groves under every green tree;" (2 Kings xvii. 8. &c.;) 
nor always strictly designated an Image, for we also read that 
the people " made them molten images, — 'and made a grove, and 
worshipped all the host of heaven, — and used divination!" 
(v. 16.) — See also Judges vi. 25, 26, 28, 30 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 4, &c. 
&c. — Hence, Selden supposes the term was used for the Images 
worshipped in the Groves, especially Astarle or Venus : Others 
have conjectured that as by Baal was meant the sun, so by 
Ashcrah or " Groves" was meant the moon, worshipped as the 
"Queen of Heaven".— Selden, De Diis Syris, edit. Bayer 
Syntag. 2, p. 160. Additamenta ad cap. 2, p. 286, Amstel. 16S0, 
Svo. — See also Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary on 2 Kings xxi. at 
the end. 

It must, however, be admitted, that in some places the word 
is justly translated "Grove," as in Deut. xxi, 21. " Thou shalt 
not plant thee a grove of any trees near unto the altar of the 
Lord thy God." — "Trees," says, Dr. Gloster Ridley, "were the 
original temples of the gods ; — they were also the symbols or 
images of them ;~ <and their several attributes were expressed 
by several trees, which were perpetually appropriated to their 
respective deities, and called by their names ; and therefore 
addressed and appealed to, as if they had themselves the 
attributes and powers of their Prototypes, to hear the covenants 
made in their presence, and to punish the violaters of them."— 
Melampus, Notes on, Canto iii, p. 259, Lond. 1781, 4.-to. 

NOTE XV..— Page 164. 

Of the truth of this assertion, and of the true origin 
of knowledge, especially that which relates to God and Divine 
things, I conceive every one must be satisfied who will read 
with candour and attention Gale's Court of the Gentiles, a work 
of immense learning and research; Dr. Ellis's Knowledge of 
Divine Things from Revelation, not from Reason or Nature, a 
valuable work, though consequently imperfect from the Author 
dying before he had completed his design ; and the Analysis 
<>f Ellis's work and of Meiner's Hisioria Doctrinal de Vero Deo, 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



341 



or History of Opinions relative to the True God, with the 
writer's own Remarks, given by Christie in his Miscellanies : 
Philosophical, Medical and Moral, London, 1789, 8vo. Of 
which it is to be regretted only one volume of this work was 
published, the dissertations in that volume affording ample proof 
of the great learning and talents of its author. 

On the great difficulty of discovering the one true God by 
the efforts of reason, it has been well observed, that it is the 
most difficult of all truths, and that which the human mind 
will last of all be able to attain. For, unless a man had found 
out the magnitude, order, and motions of the celestial bodies, 
and the revolutions of time; — unless, by the continual study 
of nature he had discovered that the forms and qualities of 
plants, and animals, and men, were all exactly such as they 
ought to be, so that nothing could have been more proper for 
use, or more beautiful and excellent in its kind; — .unless he 
clearly perceived that this glorious frame of nature could not 
exist without a cause, nor be caused by fortune, chance, 
necessity, or the blind efforts of some unintelligent nature;— 
unless, in short, he saw that there was nothing in the whole 
universe that could, with any reason, be censured or blamed, 
and was convinced that all those things which terrify the 
vulgar, tempests, snow, hailstones, earthquakes, fires, diseases, 
yea, and the vices of men themselves, all tended to the perfec- 
tion of the universe, and the good of the whole, so that nature 
could not exist without these very things, which areregarded 
as evils ; — unless human nature had attained the knowledge 
of all these high and difficult truths, it could not have dis- 
covered the One supremely Excellent Mind, the wise and good 
Creator of universal nature — But, " Who is sufficient for these 
things ?" Can we conceive that any nation, or any philosopher, 
by the mere efforts of feeble erring reason, ever attained this 
perfect knowledge of the universe — this power of explaining 
every 'phenomenon, solving every doubt, and answering every 
objection ? — As nothing is absolutely perfect but God himself, 
none of his works can give a complete idea of him ; and as 
they are all imperfect in themselves, so they are still more 
imperfectly comprehended by our narrow minds. The works 
of nature are, indeed, a path that leads to God; but what is a 
path, unless there be a light from heaven, to show the traveller 



3452 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

how to keep it ? Without this directing beam, man would never 
arrive at the end of his journey, but be for ever bewildered 
amidst the intricacies of the way, and " find no end, in wan- 
dering mazes lost." 

The difficulty of discovering the one true God, appears also 
most remarkably from this circumstance, that even the Jews 
and Christians to whom he was revealed, and to whom his 
existence was confirmed by innumerable testimonies, were not 
able to retain this high knowledge, but have been continually 
deviating into idolatry and the worshipping of false deities and 
inferior gods. What was so difficult for men to preserve, when 
communicated to them, could scarcely have been within their 
power to find out. If Jehovah be exalted so high above our 
feeble grasp, where is the man who will say, that he first 
stretched his arm to heaven, and brought him down to earth 
and comprehended him? Surely we may ask with the sacred 
writer — " Canst thou by searching find out God ? — canst thou 
find out the Almighty to perfection ? It is as high as heaven, 
what canst thou do ? deeper than hell, what canst thou know ? 
The measure thereof is longer than the earth, and broader than 
the sea." (Job xi, 7 — 9-) 

Two testimonies shall conclude this long note, the former of 
an heathen, the latter of an infidel. — Plato says, (Epinom.) 
" This is established most clearly, and on the firmest grounds, 
that when men first began to think concerning the gods— what 
they were, and how they existed and employed themselves — 
their opinions on these subjects were not taken up from the 
ideas and reasoning of learned Mew."— And the historian Hume 
remarks, — " It appears to me, that if we consider the improve- 
ments of human society, from rude beginnings to a state of 
greater perfection, polytheism or idolatry was, and necessarily 
must have been, the first and most ancient religion of mankind. 
— 'Tis a matter of fact incontestible, that, about 1700 years 
ago, all mankind were idolaters. The doubtful and sceptical 
principles of a few philosophers, or the theism, and that too 
not entirely pure, of one or two nations, form no objec- 
tion worth regarding." — Essays, Nat. Hist, of Religion, 
vol. ii. p, 417- 

See Christie's Miscellanies pp. 343—3484377 ; — and an 
ingenious and ably written pamphlet by George lledford, A.M., 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 843 

entitled, The True Age of Reason ; or A Fair Challenge to Deists. 
Lond. 1821. 

NOTE XVI.— Page 165. 

This may be regarded as a curious illustration of Ezek. 
viii, 14, and certainly more accordant as a legendary tradition 
with the superstitions of the Zabii, than the more modern 
explanation of the " Women weeping for Tammuz," which 
refers it to the festival held in commemoration of the death of 

Adonis, who was slain by a boar Adonis is fabled to have been 

a beautiful youth beloved by Venus, and killed by a wild boar 
in Mount Lebanon, from whence sprang, according to the story, 
the river Adonis said to run with blood at the time of the year 
when his festival was held, a story probably occasioned by a 
red ochre, over which the river ran with violence by its usual 
increase at this season of the year. The women of Phoenicia, 
Assyria, and Judea, mourned for Adonis at that period, as 
being dead, wearing the most obscene images, and prostituting 
themselves in honour of him, paying the price to the temples 
of Venus. After mourning his loss for a certain time, his 
return to life was announced, and the mourners indulged in the 
most extravagant joy. — It is not improbable, but that this was 
frequently connected with the mourning of the Egyptians for 
Osiris, who was said to have been slain by Typhon, and whose 
death was mourned by the Egyptian women in a similar man- 
ner, and the mourning followed by a festival of joy. — Milton 
has wrought up the story of Adonis with great effect in the 
following lines ; — 



-Thajimuz came next behind, 



Whose annual wound in Lebanon allut'd 
The Syrian damsels to lament his fate, 
In am'rous ditties all a summer's day ; 
While smooth Adonis, from his native rock, 
Kan purple to the sea, suffused with blood 
Of Thammuz yearly wounded. The love tale 
Infected Sion's daughters with like heat : 
Whose wanton passions in the sacred porch 
Ezekiel saw, when, by the vision led, 
His eye surveyed the dark idolatries 
OH alienated Judah. 

Pak. Lost, B. i, p. 446, 



344 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Godwyn's Moses and Aaron, Lib. 4. c. 2. — Lewis's Antiq. Heb. 
Repub. vol. iii, B. v. ch. 20, p. 90 — Dr. A. Clarke's Comment on 
Ezek. viii, 14. — Jahn's Biblical Archaeology, translated by T. C- 
Upham, pp.525, 526, Andover, (America,) 1823, Svo. 

NOTE XVIII.— Page 166. 

See the Dissertation VI., "On Talismans and Talismanic 
Figures." — Page 112. 

NOTE XVIII— Page 169. 

Manilivs, in his Poem on the Sphere, maintains this opinion, 
in the following lines, 

\ The God, or reason, which the orbs doth move, 
Makes things below depend on signs above ; 
Though far removed, though hid in shades of night, 
And scarce to be descried by their own light, 
Yet nations own, and men their influence feel ; 
They rule the public, and the private will : 
The proofs are plain. Thus from a different star 
We find a fruitful or a barren year ; 
Now grains increase, and now refuse to grow ; 
Now quickly ripen, now their growth is slow. 
The moon commands the seas, she drives the main 
To pass the shores, then drives it back again. 

B. II. 

NOTE XIX.— Page 170. 

These public discourses of the Zabian priests, and their object, 
strongly remind us of the practices of the idolatrous priests 
of Ceylon, as related by Harvard'm his interesting " Narrative 
of the Establishment and Progress of the Mission to Ceylon 
and India," &c. &c. — ." The Man-doos, or temporary buildings of 
leaves, which are frequently erected in the country for Bud- 
huist preaching, are termed Banna-Mandooas, or Bible- Houses. 
These buildings are in the form of Chinese pagodas, and taste- 
fully ornamented. They contain two raised pulpits, from one of 
which the principal priest recites, sitting, from the Banas, in the 
Pali language; a subordinate priest occupies the other, who inter- 
prets the sentences to the people, as delivered, in the vernacular 
tongue.— As many priests are in attendance the services are 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 345 

continued for several successive nights; the congregations 
assembling after sun-set. The people sit during the service on 
their heels ; and, with admirable patience, will continue in that 
posture several hours; occasionally expressing by a kind of 
chorus (which may be heard at a considerable distance) their 
admiration of the doctrines. The priests are carried to and from 
the pulpits on the shoulders of their disciples. The expense 
of erecting the Mando, and making the necessary preparations, 
is defrayed by the inhabitants of the neighbourhood. Great 
quantities of food are cooked and sent to the priests at their 
lodging-rooms, which are built expressly for their reception. 
Instead of stands for their lamps, at the public services, the 
natives will frequently undertake, as an act of merit, to bear 
them on their heads (each lamp weighing four or five pounds) 
during the whole night, and to supply it with oil from a bottle 
in the right hand, as occasion requires." 

NOTE XX.— Page 171 . 

The reason adduced by our author for the Mosaic 
Institutions, from their being intended to deliver the Israelites 
from the burdensome ceremonies of other rituals, may not, at 
first, appear of much force, to those who have been 
accustomed to the simplicity of the Christian system, but to 
those who have studied the rituals of many of the Pagan nations.* 
and will compare them with that instituted by Moses, the 
argument will be found to be forcible and correct. See for 
instance, the Essays, On the religious ceremonies of the Hindus, 
by H. T. Colebrooke, Esq. inserted in vols, vi and vii of the 
Asiatic Researches. — From these essays it appears, that the Vedas, 
or sacred books, from which he extracted his account of the 
Hindu ceremonies, were composed more than a thousand years 
before the Christian era; and it may, therefore, be reasonably 
conjectured, that many of them would be similar to those in use 
among the still more ancient Zabian idolaters. 

NOTE XXL— Page 173. 

See Note 4. p. 333, ante. 



346 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

NOTE XXII.— Page 174. 

On the Anatomical observations of Maimonides, I have 
been favoured with the following remarks by a medical friend, 
and am happy in being permitted to present them to the 
reader : — 

"Maimonides is incorrect in supposing the Muscles are 
formed from fibres proceeding from the nerves. — Muscles 
constitute what is called the flesh of animals, and are composed 
of masses of fibres lying parallel with each other, and inter- 
mixed with a quantity of membranous matter. The muscles 
terminate in tendons, which connect them with the bones. — The 
tendons consist of longitudinal fibres of a very firm texture 
and closely united together. It is supposed that no nerves 
are sent to them. The nerves sent to the muscles are very 
considerable, especially to those which are under the control of 
the will, being greater in proportion to their size than to any 
other part of the body, except the organs of sense. Haller 
remarks, the nerves going to the thumb are more in quantity 
than those that supply the whole substance of the liver. It has 
been thought that each muscular fibre, or at least each of the 
smallest bundles into which the fibres are arranged, contains 
one of the ultimate branches of a nerve and artery. 

" In opposition to the received opinion, Stuart thought that the 
muscular fibre was composed of a string of vesicles immediately 
formed from the substance of the nerves, which he conceived 
was similar to that of the tendons, and that these vesicles 
were covered by a net- work of blood-vessels. 

" We have no proof that the Cerebellum and Spinal Cord are 
of firmer consistence than the Cerebrum. If we cut into the 
interior of the brain, we find it to be composed of two substances 
that differ in their colour and consistence — these have obtained 
the names of the cortical or cineritious, and the medullary 
matter. The cortical is on the outside, and is of a reddish 
brown colour : it is obviously of a softer consistence than the 
medullary part. Like the brain, the Spinal Cord posseses both 
medullary and cineritious matter, though their respective 
position is reversed. 

" To the lower portion of the brain is attached a number of 
small white cords, called nerves,— bodies of a similar kind pass 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 347 

from the Spinal Cord,— the former (the Cerebral) generally 
supply the organs of Sense, — the latter are received by the 
Muscles : — both are disposed in pairs, and proceed in corres- 
ponding directions to the two sides of the body. 

" The office of the nervous system is to produce sensation. The 
two specific powers that distinguish living from dead matter, 
are spontaneous motion and sensation, — the first confined to the 
muscles,— the latter to the brain and nerves. When a nerve 
is acted upon in such a manner that its appropriate power is 
incited, motion is not necessarily incited, but the animal 
feels. On the other hand, motion may be produced 
when unattended with sensation.' — 'The two powers, therefore, 
motion and sensation, although in a great number of instances 
they are connected together, being reciprocally the cause of 
each other, may exist separately." 

NOTE XXIII.— Page 182. 

" The history subsequent to the Exodus," says, Dr. D, 
G. Wait, " as well as the various legends preserved by the 
ecclesiastical writers, incline us to believe that the Israelites, 
during their residence in Egypt, had declined, to a certain 
extent, from their primitive faith ; that the pomps, processions, 
and imposing ordinances of the country had usurped an influ- 
ence over their minds, and had incapacitated them from wholly 
returning to the plain and unsophisticated system of their 
ancestors. The Epistle to the Galatians (iii, 19) assigns the 
origin of the LaAV to some defection of this nature. Yet, it 
seems, that at first they were again to be tried by a simple 
moral code; for those who retrace the Ten Commands to the ves- 
tiges of the patriarchal laws in Genesis, are supported by no 
inconsequential arguments ; — and had the Israelites not proved 
themselves, by their homage to the golden calf, to have 
been unworthy of these plain and intelligible requisitions, it 
is probable that the ceremonial parts, which were afterwards 
annexed to them, would have been less obscure and compli- 
cated ; but this early prepossession in favor of the Egyptians, 
signalized as their deliverance had been by manifest displays 
of Almighty power, and the watchful superintendence of the 
God of their ancestors, showed that their minds were not 



348 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 



sufficiently elevated to receive moral precepts and religious 
doctrines, divested of those symbolical appendages in which 
the greater part of the world had enveloped them. But those 
ceremonies which God saw fit to accommodate to their precon-* 
ceptions of religion, and to their recently acquired habits, at 
the time they obviated their prejudices, were directly con- 
trasted with those by which the apostates had been diverted 
from the service of their Creator, and were eminently calcu^. 
lated to render the Israelites a distinct people; and as they 
became wearied of the yoke of their exactions, and warned 
by the consequences attending the violation of them, as well 
as enlightened by the calamities which they afterwards suffered 
from the votaries of these superstitions, many were, according 
to the Divine purpose, gradually prepared to adopt that more 
rational and intellectual system, which, in the fulness of time 
the Messiah was ordained to make known."— .Dr. D. G. Wait's 
Course of Sermons Preached before the University of Cambridge t 
in the year MDCCCXXV, pp. 5— 8, Lond. 1826, 8vo. 

The opinion of Maimonides, that certain rites and ceremonies 
were copied from the Egyptians, in the formation of the 
Hebrew Ritual, has been maintained with great learning by 
Sir John Marsham, in his Canon Chronicus; and by Spencer in 
his celebrated work, De Legibus Hebroeorum. This notion has, 
however, been successfully combated by Herman Witsius in 
his Mgypliaca ; and by J. Meyer in his Tractatus de Temporibus 
et Festis Diebus Hebrceorum. — Dr. Woodward's Discourse of the 
Wisdom of the Ancient Egyptians, is justly characterised by 
Bishop Watson as " a short and able refutation of the notion 
maintained and defended by Spencer ;" — and the recent Course 
of Sermons by Dr. Wait, from which the preceding extract has 
been made, presents the reader with several irrefutable argu- 
ments against the same opinion. 

Without entering into any discussion on the subject, the 
writer may be allowed to express his conviction, that it is much 
more probable, that, whatever ceremonies were practised by the 
Egyptians similar to those existing among the Israelites, were 
originally derived either from patriarchal tradition and usage, 
or from the influence and religious services of "Joseph and 
his Brethren," during the period of their power and popu- 
larity ; than that the Israelites adopted any of their sacred 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 349 

institutions from a nation whose chief deity was an ox and 
their inferior deities, cats, and beetles, and onions ;— who, not- 
withstanding all the eulogiums passed upon them, never 
attained in Literature to the use of simple Alphabetical charac- 
ters ;* nor in Architecture, to the use of the Arch in any of 
their buildings, sacred or domestic; — and whose existing monu- 
ments are distinguished by massiveness and Cyclopean magni- 
tude, and not by taste and elegance, either of form or 
sculpture. 

NOTE XXIV.— Page 183. 

When the Jews repeat their prayers in the morning 
they make use of the garments with fringes called Zizith, and 
also the Tephilin or Phylacteries. — " As to the former," says 
David Levi, "it is to be observed, that every male of the 
Jewish nation is obliged to have a garment with fringes at 
the four corners thereof, as it is commanded in Numb, xv, 37, 
" And the Lord spake unto Moses, saying, Speak unto the 
children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes 
in the borders of their garments, throughout their generations, 
and that they put on the fringe of the borders a ribband t of 
blue, and it shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look 
upon it, and remember all the commandments af the Lord and 
do them." — " And every morning when they put on the 
said garments, they must take the fringes thereof in their 
hands and say the following grace : ' Blessed art thou, O Lord 
our God ! King of the universe, who hath sanctified us with his 
commandments, and commanded us the commandment of the 
fringes !' 

* I am not ignorant of the persevering and recondite labours of Dr. Young, 
and M. Champollion, in attempting to decypher the obscure symbols of 
Egyptian inscriptions, nor unwilling to grant them the praise so justly earned ; , 
but, with every acknowledgment of the importance of their discoveries, it 
still remains the fact, that what is regarded, even by those learned men, as a 
species of alphabetical character, is too symbolical and complex for purposes of 
general learning. 

-f- The Hebrew words mean a thread of blue, and not a ribband " Mai- 

monides (in Hilcoth Zitzzis) says, that in making the Zizith, four threads are 
put through the eyelet hole at each corner, which being doubled make eight, 
one of which is to be blue, if it can be got." 

z 



350 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

"This garment (the Zizith) is made of two square pieces, 
with two long pieces like straps joined to them, in. order 
that one of the said square pieces may hang down before 
upon the breast, and the other behind; at the extremity 
of the four corners are fastened the fringes, £or tassels] 
by the means of five knots; which knots, with the eight 
threads of each finger are thirteen; and the numerical 
letters of the Hebrew word rpy-tf {Zizith) amount to 
600, which added together make the number 613, which is 
exactly the number of precepts contained in the law." — Levi's 
Ceremonies of the Jews, p. 183 — 185. 

The Tephilin or Phylacteries are small slips of parchment 
or vellum, on which certain portions of the Law are written, 
inclosed in cases of parchment, or black calf shin, and tied about 
the forehead and left arm. The Jews consider them as a divine 
ordinance, and found their opinion on Exod. xiii, 9> and 
similar passages. The design of them is believed to have been, 
first, to put them in mind of those precepts which they should 
constantly observe ; and secondly, to procure them reverence 
and respect in the sight of the Heathen. The Phylacteries or 
Tephilin, for the head, had four cavities, in every one of which 
is put a section of the law, written with great exactness, upon 
very fine vellum. These four sections are Deut. vi, 4 — 9; 
xi, 13—21; Exod. xiii, 1— .10; and Exod. xiii, 11— 1 6.— The 
Tephilin, or Phylacteries for the arm, have only one cavity. 
The same passages are inclosed in it, as in the head-phylac- 
tery, but written on one piece of vellum instead of four. — 
Dr. Lightfoot thinks it not unlikely, that our Saviour himself 
wore the Jewish Tephilin or Phylacteries, and the Zizith or 
Fringes, according to the custom of the nation ; and that he- 
did not condemn the wearing of them, but the pride and 
hypocrisy of the Pharisees in making them broad and visible, 
to obtain fame and esteem for their devotion and piety. 

The Mezuzoth are portions of Scripture written with great 
care upon slips of vellum, and inclosed in cylindrical tubes of 
lead, or cane, or wood, and nailed to the door-posts of the 
Jewish houses. The portions of Scripture written on the slips 
of parchment are Deut vi, 4 — 9; and Deut. xi, 13 — 21. — > 
When these are rolled up, the name 1 1 w, Shaddai, or Almighty* 
is inscribed upon them ; and, being inclosed in the tube, are 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 351 

fastened to the door-posts. — See Levi's Ceremonies of the 
Jews, pp. 185 — 192, 213. — Leo of Modena's History of the 
Rites, &c. of the present Jews, &c. translated by E. Chilmead, 
P. % c. 2, p. 5; c. 5, pp. 15, 16. Lond. 1650, l6mo.~ For 
Engravings of the Phylacteries and Mezuzah, see the Frontis- 
piece of this volume. 

NOTE XXV.— Page 186. 

" This is the specific reason assigned for its adoption into 
the Mosaic polity. f In six days the Lord made heaven and 
earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh 
day : wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day, and 
hallowed it.' (Exod. xx. 11.) Great must have been the 
efficacy of this ordinance in i - estraining the Israelites from idol 
worship, the besetting sin of that stubborn people. Being 
instituted in memory of the work of creation, every act of 
compliance with the command was a virtual acknowledgment 
of the one Jehovah, in opposition to the numerous false deities 
of surrounding nations. The remission of their worldly 
employments on the seventh day, naturally called to remem- 
brance God's ci-eating the world in six days, and resting on 
the seventh. In the constant renewal of this recollection, 
their minds must have been as constantly impressed with the 
first and fundamental truth of all religion, the unity and 
omnipotence of the Deity. With every returning Sabbath, 
their thoughts were directed to the Supreme Being, who, 
existing eternally, infinite in his perfections, and the Creator 
of the universe, was alone deserving their praise, their 
reverence and worship." — To which we may add, that, " as 
such a memorial, the Sabbath is of equal utility to all man- 
kind, and will continue so to the latest posterities : but it was 
likewise in an especial manner useful to the Jews as com- 
memorative of their deliverance from Egyptian bondage. In 
the repetition of the Sinaitic law in the book of Deuteronomy, 
this is declared to be one object of its institution. (Deut. 
v, 15.) — That the Sabbath was also instituted, partly with the 
view of being a sign, is asserted by the inspired writers : 
(Exod. xxxi, 16, 17 :) — whereby it was asserted, that Jehovah 
was the only God whom the Israelites worshipped, and that 
z 2 



352 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

they were his peculiar people:" — and "the Jewish Sabbath, 
being in some respects ceremonial, has been considered as 
having a typical meaning, and it derives a degree of proba- 
bility from the general typical nature of the Mosaic ordinances." 
— Holden's Christian Sabbath: Sect. i. Chap. iii. pp. 135—139. 
Lond. 1825,, Svo. 

NOTE XXVI.— Page 189- 

Ablutions appear to have been amongst the oldest cere- 
monies practised by different nations. Moses enjoined them ; 
the Heathen adopted them ; and Mohammed and his followers 
have continued them : thus they have become established in 
the world, and associated with nearly all religions. The 
Egyptian priests had their diurnal and nocturnal ablutions ; 
the Greeks their sprinklings ; the Romans their lustrations and 
lavations ; the Jews their frequent washings and purifications. 
The ancient Christians had their ablutions before communion ; 
which the Romish church still retains sometimes before, 
sometimes after mass: the Syrians, Copts, &c. have their 
washings on Good Friday: the Turks their greater and less 
ablutions; their Ghost and Wodou, &c. — So far do the 
Mohammedans carry their views of religious ablutions, that 
their writers assert, that " Purity or Cleanliness is the 
foundation of religion ;" and that " Purity or Cleanliness is the 
half of Faith," similar to the old English proverb, " Cleanliness 
is next to Godliness." 

The superstitious character of the Jewish ablutions practised 
in the time of our Saviour, will be found discussed at length in 
Cap. ix. of the Notce Miscellanea, appended to Pocockii Porta 
Mosis. — In vol. V. of the "Asiatic Researches," the Hindoo 
ablutions are described by H. T. Colebrooke, esq. in an Essay, 
" On the religious ceremonies of' the Hindus, and of the Brahmins 
especially :" — and the subject of Mohammedan ablutions is 
investigated by the learned Pocock in Specimen Histories 
Arabum, Oxon. 1650. 4fo. pp. 302 — 304; and by Sale, in The 
Preliminary Discourse, prefixed to his translation of the 
"Koran," Sect. iv. p. 138. Lond, 1801, Svo. 

NOTE XXVII— Page 195. 

One of the parts of the liturgy of the Jews, and which they 
regard as one of the most solemn, is called Kibiath Shema, 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 353 

It consists, <c in reading, of three portions of Scripture. The 
first is from the beginning of the 4th verse of the 6th chapter 
of Deutoronomy, to the end of the 9th verse : the second, 
from the beginning of the 13th verse of the 12th chapter of 
Deutoronomy, to the end of the 21st verse: and the third, 
from the beginning of the 37th verse of the 15th chapter of 
Numbers, to the end of the chapter: and because the first of 
these portions, in the Hebrew Bible, begins with the word 
yoty Shema, i. e. "Hear;" all these three portions together 
are called the Shema, and the reading of them Kiriath Shema; 
that is, the reading of the Shema. The reading of the Shema 
twice a day, that is, Morning and Night, is what they are 
expressly bound to do, because of the words of the Law, in 
Deut vi. 7; and xi. ip. "And thou shalt talk of them when 
thou liest down, and when thou risest up ;" i. e. at the usual 
time ef mankind lying down, which is at night, and the usual 
time of rising, which is the morning."— Levi's Ceremonies of 
the Jews, p. 178. — See also Wotton's Miscellaneous Discourses, 
vol. i. pp. 171 — 193: and vol. ii. p. 10. 

NOTE XXVI II.— Page 201. 

"See Dissertation IX. "On Judicial Astrology," page 127 ; 
and Note 12. p. 337- 

NOTE XXIX.— Page 203. 

Reginald Scot, or his Continuator, observes, " That which 
is most remarkable in the infernal proceedings is this, that 
there is not any nation under the sun, but the Devil hath 
introduced himself amongst them, through their ^ceremonies 
and worship, though quite opposite to one another. For in 
the kingdom of China, — he is conjured and exorcised through 
the repetition of several superstitious invocations to the sun and 
moon. In Tartary the magicians go quite another way to 
work, Avith offerings to the ocean, to the mountains, and 
the rivers, fuming incense and divers sorts of feathers, by 
which means the devils are compelled to appear. So that we 
see how this Proteus can dispose himself in the divers king- 
doms of this world : being called by other names in Tartary, 
China, the East and West Indies, &c. than amongst the 



354 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

European conjurers. Likewise, the Greeks and Romans could 
invocate spirits by prayers to the moon, and divers sacrifices 
of milk, honey, vervain, and blood: and those that are 
addicted to conjurations in Christianity, have attained to a 
more lofty and ample manner of incantation and conjuring 
with magical garments, fire, candles, circles, astrological 
observations, invocations, and holy names of God, according 
to the Cabala of the Jews ; so that every distinct nation hath 
conformed its conjuration unto the ceremonies of that religion 
which it professeth." 

These observations are fully confirmed by the details of 
more modern writers on the customs and practices of various 
nations. To instance only in the Hindoos, Mr. Ward informs 
us in his elaborate and valuable " View of the History, 
Literature, and Mythology of the Hindoos," that " The 
Hindoos are enveloped in the greatest superstition, not only as 
idolaters, but in their dread of a great variety of supernatural 
beings, and in attaching unfortunate consequences to the most 
innocent actions. — They consult astrologers on many occasions, 
and have the strongest faith in the power of incantations 
to remove all manner of evils — Many Hindoo married women, 
who are not blessed with children, wear incantations written 
with lac on the bark of the bhoohrjjii, in order to obtain this 
blessing. They wear these charms on the arm, or round the 
neck, or in the hair, inclosed in small gold or brass boxes. 
The Hindoos repeat incantations when they retire to rest — 
when they rise — when they first set their foot on the ground — 
when they clean their teeth — -when they eat- — when they have 
done eating — when it thunders — when they enter on a 
journey— when they want to kill or injure a supposed enemy — 
when they wish to cure the scab in sheep," &c. 

We may,, therefore, add, in the words of the old writer, 
already quoted, that " notwithstanding the coming of Christ 
hath prevented the Devil's force in general ; yet, such nations 
as have never embraced the Christian faith, are still deluded 
and bewitched by him ; because the centre hath never been 
actually awakened in any of them ; so that the Devil's power 
prevails over them mightily, to seduce them to worship things 
visible, and not the true God : for where the most darkness is 
in religion and worship, or in natural understanding, there his 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



355 



power is most predominant." — Reginald Scot's Discovery of 
Witchcraft -.—Discourse concerning Devils and Spirits, B. ii, pp. 
58, 59, Lond. 1665, folio— Ward's View of the History, 
Literature, and Mythology of the Hindoos, vol. iii, pt. ii, pp. 
209—212, Lond. 1820, Svo. Third edit. 

NOTE XXX— Page 207- 

Reginald Scot, in the work quoted in the preceding note, 
B. xii, gives many of the forms of incantation used i the 
pretended cure of diseases, as well as of the amulets worn on 
similar occasions. He also relates the following curious story 
strongly marking the folly of such conduct: "An old woman 
that healed (or rather pretended to heal) all diseases of cattle, 
for which she never took any reward but a penny and a loaf, 
being seriously examined by what means she brought these 
things to pass, confessed, that, after she had touched the sick 
creature, she always departed immediately, saying, — 1 

My loaf in my lap, 

My penny in my purse ; 
Thou art never the better, 

And I am never the worse." 

Scot's Discovery of Witchcraft, B. xii, ch xiv, p. 138. 
NOTE XXXI Page 207- 

The Hebrew word which we translate "corners," (Lev. xix, 
27,) signifies also the ends or extremities of any thing : and the 
meaning is, they were not to cut their hair equal, behind and 
before, as the worshippers of the stars and the planets, par- 
ticularly the Arabians, did ; for this made their head have the 
form of an hemisphere. — Bochart notes, (lib. i, Canaan, c 6,) 
Idumaeans, Ammonites, Moabites, and the rest of the inhabi- 
tants of Arabia Deserta, are called " circumcised in the corners, 
i. e. of the head. Jer. ix, 26." — Patrick in Levit. xix, 27. 

" Herodotus observes, that the Arabs shave or cut their hair 
round, in honour of Bacchus, who, they say, had his hair cut 
in this way. (Lib. iii, c. 8.) — He says also, that the Macians, a 
people of Lybia, cut their hair round, so as to leave a tuft on 
the top of the head. (Lib. iv, c, 175.) In this manner the 
Chinese cut their hair in the present day. — The hair was much 



859 NOTKS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 

used in divination among the Greeks ; and particularly about 
the time of the giving of the Law, as this is supposed to have 
been the era of the Trojan war. We learn from Homer, that 
it was customary for parents to dedicate the hair of their 
children to some god ; which, when they came to manhood, 
they cut off and consecrated to the deity. Achilles, at the 
funeral of Patroclus, cut off his golden locks, which his father 
had dedicated to the river god Sperchius, and threw them 
into the flood. — ^rug uttuv eu$s ttvoyjs. — %. t. A. — Iliad, 1. xxiii, 
x. 142, &c 

But great Achilles stands apart in prayer, 

And from his head divides the yellow hair, 

Those curling locks which from his youth he vow'd, 

And sacred grew to Sperchius' honoured flood. 

Then sighing, to the deep his locks he cast, 

And roll 'd his eyes around the watery waste. 

Sperchius ! whose waves, in mazy errors lost, 

Delightful roll along my native coast ! 

To whom we vainly vow'd, at our return, 

These locks to fall, and hecatombs to burn — 

So vow'd my father, but he vow'd in vain ; 

No more Achilles sees his native plain ; 

In that vain hope, these hairs no longer grow ; 

Fatroclus bears them to the shades below. 

Pope. 

" From Virgil we learn that the topmost lock of hair was 
dedicated to the infernal gods. — iEneid, 1. iv, v. 6'98. 

The sisters had not cut the topmost hair, 
Which Proserpine and they can only know, 
Nor made her sacred to the shades below — 



This offering to the infernal gods I bear ; 
Thus while she spoke, she cut the fatal hair." 

Drvden. 

Dr. Adam Clarke's Commentary in Lev. xix, 27- 
NOTE XXXII.— Page 207- 

These heterogeneous mixtures whether of garments, seeds, 
or animals, were evidently forbidden to prevent idolatry. 
Thomas Aquinas (Prim, secund. qu. 102, art. 6,) says, "All 
these mixtures were forbidden out of hatred to idolatry, 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 35? 

because the Egyptians made mixtures of this nature in seeds, 
animals, and garments, to represent the different conjunctions 
of the planets;" and William of Paris remarks more at large, 
that " The idolaters by these intermixtures and conjunctions 
intended to intimate that it would be wise in husbandmen and 
shepherds to worship the stars ; since they believed that by 
their favour and influence, the sheep would produce abundance 
of wool, and the fields copious harvests of grain. They there- 
fore mixed linen and woollen together in their garments, that 
their worship might be successful, and that the stars might 
produce abundance of both. This practice was, therefore, on 
this account forbidden ; and the more strenuously go, because 
these mixtures of woollen and linen were made according to 
certain positions of the stars." — Spencer, De Legibus Hebraeo- 
rum, lib. ii, c. 21. p. 402, Hagse-Comit. 1686, Mo. 

Maimonides (in Halach. Kelaim.) observes, that if a man saw 
an Israelite wear such a garment, it was lawful for him to fall 
upon him openly, and tear his garment in pieces, even if he 
were his master who taught him wisdom. — The reasons alleged 
for this abhorrence were the same as for many other precepts, 
being designed to preserve them from the horrid confusion^ 
which was among the Gentiles, by incestuous and unnatural 
mixtures.' — 'See Patrick's Commentary, Levit. xix, ig. 

NOTE XXXIII.— Page 208. 

" As the heathens made such a multiplicity of gods out of one 
and the same person ; so likewise did they confound their 
sexes, making the same deity sometimes a god, sometimes a 
goddess, or rather all of them of both sexes. Hence it is 
that the Greeks used the word Qsoc, both for gods and 
goddesses : and after the same manner was the word Deus 
used by the Romans. — Hence it was, that the Cyprians repre- 
sented their Venus with a beard, having a sceptre in her hand, 
dressed as a woman, but masculine in her stature and name 
''Atppohiros ; — and the statue the Syrians worshipped in the 
temple of Heliopolis, was that of a woman clothed like a man. 
So at Rome they had a Fortuna Mascula and Virilis, and a 
Fortuna Barbata. They had likewise, as Servius and Lactan- 
tius tell us, an armed Venus. The Gentiles, to signify this 
mystery of community of sexes in their deities, counter- 



358 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

feited themselves to be masculine-feminine in their worship- 
ping them. They thought to please their gods by presenting 
themselves before them, as like them as they could ; and by 
wearing a habit different from their sex, to recommend them- 
selves to such deities as they supposed of doubtful, or rather 
of both sexes, This was prcatised especially in the worship 
of Venus. — Their women thought they could not appear more 
acceptably in the presence of the god of war, than dressed in 
arms ; and their men, in the presence of the goddess of love, 
than in the habit proper to the soft and tender sex ; and so 
Philocorus, (apud Macrob. 1. iii, c. 8,) an old Greek author, 
tells us of the Asiatics, that when they sacrificed to their 
Venus, ' the men were dressed in women's apparel, and the 
women in men's, to denote that she was esteemed by them both 
male and female.' — Julius Firmicus describes this manner of 
worship as common amongst the Assyrians and Africans. 
From them it passed into Europe. The Phoenicians carried it 
with them into Cyprus, (Servius ad iEn. 1. ii,) where we find 
it practised ; and we meet at Coos with the high-priest of 
Hercules sacrificing in women's apparel ; and the Argives 
performing their Hijbristica, or sacred rites of incivility, * the 
women clothed with men's coats and breeches, and the men 
with women's veils and petticoats;' — Plutarch, 'Of the 
Virtues of Women,' 4 : — and the same thing was practised 
by the Ithyphalli in the rites of Bacchus ; and by the Athen- 
ians in their Ascophoria." — Young, On Idolatrous Corrup- 
tions in Religion, vol. i, pp, 97 — 105. 



NOTE XXXlV.—Page 200. 

" The Jews were so sensible of all this, after they had 
severely smarted for their idolatry, that they thought it 
unlawful to use any vessel that had been employed in sacri- 
ficing to a false god : nay, to warm themselves with the wood 
of a grove that was cut down; or to sit under the shadow of 
it for coolness sake, while it was standing ; or so much as to 
use the ashes of the wood, that were left after the grove was 
burnt." — Selden, Lib. ii, De Jure Nat. et Gent, juxta Discipl. 
Hebr. cap. vii. — Patrick's Commentary, Deut. vii. 26. 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 359 

NOTE XXXV— Page 210. 

The combined influence of hope and fear in producing the 
most powerful effects upon mankind, is strongly evinced in 
the superstitious practices of India. " The widow who ascends 
the funeral pile," says Mr. Ward, " is promised by the shastru 
that, by the merit of this act, she shall take her deceased 
husband and seven generations of his family, and seven gener- 
ations of her family, with her to the heaven of Indru, the King 
of the gods, where they shall reside during 30,000,000 of 
years. Seduced by these promises, and having the prospect, 
should she not burn, of nothing but domestic slavery and per- 
petual widowhood, multitudes annually perish on these funeral 
piles." — He also informs us, that the "Dowugnu Bramhuns 
go from house to house, proposing to cast nativities : some- 
times they stop a person in the street, and tell him some 
melancholy news, as, that he will not live long; and the poor 
superstitious Hindoo firmly believing that these people can 
read his fate in the palm of his hand, or in the motions of the 
stars, and that they can avert disasters by certain ceremonies, 
gives them his money." — Ward's View of the History, Litera- 
ture, and Mythology of the Hindoos, vol. iii, Pref. p. xxiii ; 
Part ii, p. 206. 

NOTE XXXVI— Page 210. 

When we recollect the degraded state of females in the 
East, we need not wonder that Maimonides has expressed 
iiimself so contemptuously respecting the intellectual character 
of women. — -For, is it possible to read the statements of those 
who have resided in those countries, relative to the oppressed 
and destitute situation of females of every rank, without 
feeling a burst of indignation against a conduct so unjust 
and baneful — " There are no female schools among the 
Hindoos," says a benevolent and competent writer in 1820, 
" every ray of mental improvement is carefully kept from the 
sex* As they are always confined to domestic duties, and 

* An old adage is always present with the Hindoos, that if a woman learn 
to read, she will become a widow. — Ward's View of the History, &c. of the 
Hindoos, vol. iii, P. ii, p. 168. 



360 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

carefully excluded from the company of the other sex ; a 
Hindoo sees no necessity for the education of females, and 
the shastrus themselves declare, that a woman has nothing to do 
with the text of the vedii: all her duties are comprized in 
pleasing her husband, and cherishing her children." 

It is, however, pleasing, to learn that, since Mr, Ward wrote, 
Native Female Schools have been established in several parts 
of India, under the patronage of the most distinguished 
European residents, and are gradually removing the native 
prejudices against the education of females of all classes. 

NOTE XXXVIL— Page 211. 

" That it was the practice of the ancient heathens to pass 
through fire, as a rite of initiation or lustration is certain, from 
what Suidas tells us of the mysteries of Mithra, that they 
who were to be initiated were, §ja Trvgog TrageKSsiv : and 
it is plain from Virgil, that it was used in the worship of 
Apollo by the Etrurians on Mount Soracte, [now San Areste,^ 
JEn. xi, v. 786. — It may be, the Canaanitish custom was much 
the same with what the Romans did annually at their Palilia, 
which were feasts kept on the 12th of May, which was the 
birth-day of their city, to the honour of their goddess Pales, 
who, as Gyraldus tells us, was the same as the Mother of the gods 
or Astarte, and that some took her to be of the feminine, others 
of the masculine gender. Varro, as he is quoted by the 
scholiast on Horace says, " The country people have private 
as well as public feasts of Pales, when they jump over a great 
fire, made of stubble and hay, imagining themselves to be 
purified by the Palilia." Ovid describes this usage, Fast. 1. iv. 
This practice continued a long while in Persia; and if we 
believe some authors, it is even still practised by the worship- 
pers of fire. Theodoret, on 2 Kings xvi, mentions it as 
continuing in his time ; and St. Chrysostom blames, amongst 
other heathenish customs then remaining, the lighting two 
great fires, and passing between them ; and the 65th canon of 
the Council of Trullo, [[held A.D. 692] condemns the observ- 
ing the new moon, with making fires before their doors, and 
leaping on them." — Young, ut sup. p. 11 7. 

The Scholiast upon this canon of the Council of Trullo, 
observes : — The new-moon was always the first day of the 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 361 

month, and it was customary among the Jews and Greeks, to 
hold a feast at that time, and to pray that they might be lucky 
during the continuance of the month. Of these it was that God 
spake by the Prophet, " My soul hateth your New-Moons and 
your Sabbaths." They also kindled fires before their shops and 
houses, and leaped over them, imagining that all the evils 
which had befallen them formerly, would be burnt away, and 
that they should be more successful and lucky afterwards. 
Now about the period of the sitting of the Synod, there were 
some of the Christians who observed this custom upon the 
same accounts that the Heathen did, which occasioned its being 
forbidden by the Council ; and that if a Clergyman was guilty 
of it, he should be deposed : if a Layman, excommunicated. 
He also tells us, that on St. John Baptist's eve, the vulgar were 
wont to make fires for the whole night, and leap over them, 
and draw lots, and divine about their good and evil fortune. 

There was a feast at Athens kept by private families, called 
Amphidromia, on the fifth day after the birth of a child, when it 
was the custom for the gossips to run round the fire with the 
infant in their arms ; and then having delivered it to the nurse, 
they were entertained with feasting and dancing. 

Dr. Moresin, in a learned work written in Latin, and 
dedicated to James I, entitled, " The Origin and Increase of 
Depravity in Religion," states that he himself was an eye-wit- 
ness of a remarkable custom, which then existed in Scotland . 
" They take," says he, ". the new-baptized infant, and vibrate 
it three or four times over a flame, saying and repeating thrice, 
c Let the flame consume thee now, or never.' " 

Mr. Borlase, in his account of Cornwall, says, " The Cornish 
make bonfires in every village on the eve of St. John Baptist's 
and St. Peter's days, which I take to be the remains of part of 
the Druid superstition." — Brand's Observations on Popular 
Antiquities, Chap, xxvii ; and Observations on Ch. xxvii, pp. 
273, 274—278. 

NOTE XXXVIII.— Page 211. 

The particular species of tree indicated by the term mty», 
( Ashreh) is not certain, though it is most probable the oak is 
intended. (See Ezek. vi, 13.) But whatever may have been 



362 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

its original and special designation, it is conjectured that, from 
the veneration in which this tree was held, originated the appli- 
cation of the term to an idol, or to idols : — (Judges iii, 7 '■> 1 Kings 
xiv, 23; xv, 13; 2 Kings xvii, 10, 16; xxi, 7; xxiii, 4, 6, 7 ; 
2 Chron. xxxiii, 19 ; Isaiah xvii, 8,et al. :)— to groves planted for 
idolatrous purposes :-— and that the name of the Sidonian 
Venus, Asarah or Astarte, as well as the terms Asheroth 
and Ashtaroth, were derived from the same source.— See 
Judges ii. 13 ; 1 Sam. vii. 3, 4, el al. — See Selden De Diis Syris, 
Syrttag. 2. Cap. 2, et Additamenta Beyeri: pp. 294 — 296; and Par- 
khurst Heb. Lex. sub voce, 1 w N — See also Note 14, page 340. 

NOTE XL Page 212. 

" The use and end of their First-Fruits, was, that the 
after-fruits might be consecrated in them. For this purpose, 
they were enjoined to offer the First-Fruits of their Trees, 
which served for food: (Levit. xix. 23, 24:) in which this 
order was observed ; the three first years after the tree had 
been planted, the fruits were accounted ' uncircumcised' and 
' unclean.' It was unlawful to eat them, sell them, or make any 
benefit of them. On the fourth year they were accounted 
' holy ;' that is, either they were given to the priests ; (Numb, 
xviii. 12, 13 ;) or the owners ate them before ' the Lord at 
Jerusalem/ as they did their second lythe : and this latter is the 
common opinion of the Hebrews. After the fourth year they 
returned to the use of the owner. We may call these simply 
The First-Fruits. 

" Secondly : they were enjoined to pay yearly the First- 
Fruits of every year's increase ; — and of them there were many 
sorts; first, First-Fruits in the Sheaf: (Levit. xxiii. 10:) 
secondly, First-Fruits in two wave-loaves. (Levit. xxiii. 17.) 
These two bounded the harvest : that in the sheaf was offered 
in the beginning of harvest, upon the fifteenth of Nisan ; the 
other, of the loaves at the end, upon their Pentecost : and 
(Levit. xxiii.) they are both called mann, Tenupheh, 
that is, Shake-ojferings. — Thirdly : there was a first of the 
Dough, (Numb. xv. 20,) namely the four-and-twentieth part 
thereof, given unto the Priests ; which kind of offering -was 
observed, even when they were returned out of Babylon. 
(Nehem. x, 37.) — Fourthly, they were to pay unto the Priests 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 363 

the First-Fruits of the threshing-floor. (Numb, xv, 10.) These 
two last are called rtlDlin Terumoth, that is, ' heave- 
offerings;" this, 'the heave-offering of the threshing-floor;' 
the other, 'the heave-offering of the dough.' — Tenuphoth and 
Terumoth, both signify shake-offering, heave-offering, or wave- 
offering, but with this difference ; that Terumoth was by a 
waving of elevation, lifting the oblation up?vard and doivnward, 
to signify that God was Lord both of heaven and earth. The 
Tenuphoth was by a waving of agitation, waving it to and fro, 
from the right hand to the left, from the East to the West, 
from the North to the South ; by which kind of agitation, they 
acknowledged God to be the Lord of the whole world." — 
Godwyn's Moses and Aaron, lib. 6, Chap. 2, pp. 214, 215. 
The oblation of the First-Fruits of the threshing-floor, " was 
distinguished by the Rabbis into two sorts : the first of these 
was, the First-fruits of seven things only. Wheat, Barley, 
Grapes, Figs, Pomegranates, Olives, and Dates. These the 
Talmudists call by the name of Biccurim, which signifies ' the 
choicest part/ or what was first ripe. The owner might bring 
in what measure he pleased ; but in gathering, he alway s 
bound the portions he designed for the Priests about with 
rushes, and said, 'Let this be for the First- Fruits.' — The 
second was paid of Corn, Wine, and Oil, and whatever else 
was for the support of human life. — Under this kind of First- 
Fruits is included the first of the Fleece. — By this means the 
Priests were provided with Clothes, as by other offerings with 
food. The wool also of Goats, which were shorn in those 
countries, is included under the Fleece of Sheep. 

" When the people brought up their First-Fruits to Jerusalem* 
it was done with great pomp and ceremony. All the cities 
that were of one station, that is, out of which one course of 
priests proceeded, were gathered together into a stationary 
city, and lodged in the streets. In the morning, he who was 
the first among them, said, < Arise, let us go up to Zion, to 
the house of the Lord our God.' An ox went before them 
with gilded horns, and an olive crown upon his head, for a 
peace-offering, and the pipe played before them, until they 
approached near to Jerusalem. When they came to Jerusalem, 
they crowned their First-Fruits, that is, they exposed them to 
sight in as much glory as they could, and the chief men, and 



364 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

the high-officers, and treasurers of the temple, came to meet 
them, to do them the more honour that they were coming ; 
and all the workmen in Jerusalem rose up to them, and 
saluted them, in this manner: — ' O our brethren, inhabitants 
of the City N — . ye are welcome.' — The pipe played before 
them, till they came to the Mount of the Temple. Every one, 
even the King himself, took his basket upon his shoulder, and 
went forward till he came to the Court. The Levites then 
sang, ' I will extol thee, O Lord, because thou hast exalted 
me, and hast not made mine enemies to rejoice over me.' — 
While the basket is yet upon his shoulders, he recites that 
passage, ' I profess this day to the Lord my God :' — when he 
speaks these words: — 'A Syrian ready to perish was my 
father,' (Deut. xxvi. 3, 5,) he casts down the basket from his 
shoulders, and holds his lips, while the priest waves it hither 
and thither. The whole passage being recited to the 10th 
verse, he places the basket before the altar, worships, and 
goes out. They used to hang turtles or pigeons about their 
baskets, which were adorned with flowers ; and these they 
designed as an offering. The fruits themselves belonged to 
the priests of the course that were then in service ; and the 
party who brought them was obliged to lodge in Jerusalem all 
the night after he had presented them ; and the next morning 
he was allowed to return home." — Lewis's Antiquities of the 
Hebrew Republick, vol. i. b. 2, Chap. 8, pp. 145, 146. Lond. 
1724, Svo. 

" The Heathen, in all probability, from hence derived the 
custom of carrying their First-Fruits, as a tithe every year, 
unto the Island Delos, where Apollo was supposed to have his 
special residence : and this, not only from the islands there- 
abouts, and the neighbouring countries, but from all parts of 
of the world ; as the Jews we find every where sent from the 
countries where they dwelt, a sum of money every year, instead 
of First-Fruits and Tithes, unto Jerusalem ; which privilege 
the Romans allowed them after they had conquered them, as 
Josephus tells us, Lib. vii. De Bello Jiul. Cap. xiii. — So we 
read in several authors, that they were solemn embassies sent 
from several people, by chosen persons unto Delos, to cele- 
brate there the feast of Apollo, with music and dancing, &c. 
particularly the Athenians, Peloponnesians, and Messenians, 



NOTES AVI) ILLUSTRATIONS. SC5 

&c. of whom see Ezek. Spanliemius in his ' Observations on 
Callimachus,' p. 487: and, which is most strange, the Hyper- 
boreans, a very northerly people sent frugurn primitias to this 
island, as Pliny, and I know not how many other authors, 
testify. — Which was done to testify their honour to this god, 
and for the maintenance of his priests and other ministers, who 
attended upon him there. For Delos, of itself, was but a 
barren isle, the soil being dry and stony." — " There are other 
footsteps of this among the Heathen ; the Mystica vannus Iacchi 
mentioned by Virgil in his ' Georgicks,' being nothing else 
(according to Servius) but vas vimineum, a wicker-basket, in 
which their First-Fruits were carried. See the same Spanheim, 
p. 495." — Patrick on Deut. xxvi, 2 ; see also on v. 14 ; and 
Spencer, De Leg. Heb. Lib. 2, C. 24, Sect. 1. 

An interesting anecdote, illustrative of this practice, is given 
in Mr. Buckingham's recent Travels in Mesopotamia. — " In 
pursuing our way across the plain, £one of the plains of the 
Turcomans, ^ we passed a party of husbandmen gathering in 
the harvest, the greater portion of the grain being now fully 
ripe. They plucked up the corn by the roots, instead of 
reaping it, a practice often spoken of in the Scriptures, though 
reaping seems to be made the earliest and most frequent men- 
tion of. On seeing the caravan, one of the labourers ran from 
his companions and approached us, danced, stood on his hands, 
with his feet aloft in the air, and gave other demonstrations of 
joy, when he presented us with an ear of corn and a flower, as 
an offering of the First-Fruits of the year ; another remnant of 
a very ancient usage in the ' wave-offering' of the sheaf and 
the ear of corn, commanded to the Israelites by Moses. We 
returned for it a handful of paras, or small tin-coin, and 
answered the shout of joy which echoed from the field, by 
acclamations from the caravan."' — Buckingham's Travels in 
Mesopotamia, quoted in New Month. Mag. p. 203. March, 
1827- 

NOTE XLL— Page 213. 

Dr. Cuoworth in his valuable " Discourse concerning the 
true Notion of the Lord's Supper," p. 36, gives the following 
extract from an ancient Karaite Comment on the Pentateuch, 

A A 



866 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

which at once illustrates these magical sprinklings, and explains 
one of the Mosaic Precepts. (Exod. xxiii. IQ.) "It was a 
custom of the ancient Heathens, when they had gathered in all 
their fruits, to take a kid, and boil it in the dam's milk, and 
then, in a magical way, to go about and besprinkle with it all 
their trees, and fields, and gardens, and orchards ; thinking by 
this means they should make them fructify and bring forth 
fruit again more abundantly the following year :"-" wherefore," 
adds Dr. Cudworth, " God forbad his people the Jews at the 
time of their ingathering, to use any such superstitious or 
idolatrous rite." 

NOTE XLII.— Page 213. 

Superstitious notions relative to the Moon's influence, 
have universally obtained, and until very recently prevailed 
in our own country. One of our old writers, of no mean 
account, amongst other "points" of "good husbandry," 
observes, 

In March is good graffing, the skilful do know, 
So long as the wind in the East do not blow : 
From moon being chang'd till past be the prime, 
For graffing and cropping is very good time. 

Tussek. 

NOTE XLII.— Page 214. 

The prohibition of sowing a field with mixed seed, was 
probably intended not only to prevent the Israelites from 
mingling with other nations and adopting their idolatrous prac- 
tices, but also to promote the interests of agriculture, by 
preventing those heterogeneous mixtures which would have 
lessened the quantity or injured the excellency of their crops. 
" The law," says Michaelis, "meant nothing more than that 
care was to be taken to have the seed as pure as possible, and 
that it was to be selected arad dressed with the greatest atten- 
tion, to prevent two different kinds of grain from coming up 
together.' — It was a general pi'ohibition, not to sow two sorts 
of corn together. For both sorts will not ripen at the same 
time ; and the consequence is, that in reaping there must be a 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 367 

loss on one of them. Nor yet are both of the same height ; so 
that the higher of the two will deprive the other of sun-shine, 
free air, and wind." — Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of 
Moses, translated by Dr. A. Smith, vol. iii, Art. 268, pp. 342, 
358. London, 1814, €vo. 

"It was a further rite taught by idolatry, that barley and 
dried grapes should be sowed together, supposing such a mix- 
ture made their vineyards better. By such actions, as Dr. 
Spencer rightly observes, they signified that their vineyards 
were consecrated to Ceres and Bacchus, and were recommended 
to their protection, and expressed, in effect, a dependance on 
their influence for their fruitfulness. Such rites as these were 
a sort of renunciation of the protection and blessing of the true 
God, and a declaration of their hope in favour of other gods 
besides Him, to whom they recommended themselves, rathef 
than to Jehovah, for the fruitfulness of their vineyards ; there- 
fore the Hebrew ritual directs, " Thou shalt not sow thy vine- 
yard with different seeds, lest the fruit of the seed thou hast 
sown, and the fruit of thy vineyard, be defiled." — Lowman's 
Rational of the Ritual of the Hebrew Worship, p. 242. Lond. 
1816, 8w. See also Spencer, De Leg. Heb. lib. 2, c. 18, sect. 
1, 2, 3, pp. 379—385. Hagae Comitum, 1686, Mo. 

Bishop Patrick also justly remarks, (Comment. Deut. xxii. 9,) 
" If the Israelites bad followed this custom, it would have made 
both the Corn and the Grapes that sprang up from such seed 
impure, because polluted by idolatry ; the very smell of 
which God would not have to remain among the Israelites, as 
Maimonides speaks in his More Nevochim, P. 3, C. 37. Every 
one also knows that it was unlawful for the Israelites to eat 
any of the fruits of the earth, till the First-Fruits of the earth 
had been offered unto God ; which would not have been 
accepted by him of such things as these, that were expressly 
forbidden by his law ; and consequently the whole crop 
became unclean to them, and might not be used by them." 

NOTE XLIII— -Page 215. 

A somewhat similar practice obtains even in our own 
country in the present day, in the Wolds of Yorkshire, where 
it is customary to raise smoke in the fields, when they finish 
2 a 2 



368 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

ploughing. This they call, " Burning out the witch." — See also 
Asiatic Researches, vol. iv, p. 342. 

NOTE XLIV.— Page 219. 

See note 40, p. 364, on the " First-Fruits." 

NOTE XLV.— Page 222. 

As a period of seven days was completed by the Sabbath, so 
was a period of seven years by the Sabbalick Year. During 
this year, nothing was sown and nothing reaped ; the vines 
and the olives were not pruned: there was no vintage and no 
gathering of fruits, even of what grew wild : but whatever 
spontaneous productions there were, were left to the poor, the 
traveller, and the wild beast. (Levit. xxv. 1-7 ; Deut. xv. 
1 — 10 ) Extraordinary fruitfulness was promised on the sixth 
year, but in such a way as not to exclude care and foresight. 
(Levit. xxv. 20 — 24.) We are not to suppose, however, that 
the Hebrews spent the seventh year in absolute idleness. They 
could fish, hunt, take care of their bees and flocks, repair their 
buildings and furniture, manufacture cloths of wool, linen, 
and of the hair of goats and camels, and carry on commerce. 
Finally, they were obliged to remain longer in the tabernacle 
or temple this year, during which, the whole Mosaic law was 
read, in order to be instructed in religious and moral duties, 
and the history of their nation, and the wonderful works and 
blessings of God. (Deut. xxxi. 10 — 13). — On account of there 
being no income from the soil, debts were not collected. 
(Deut. xv. 1, 2.) Some have supposed that they were not, 
however, cancelled, as was imagined by the Talmudists ; and 
have considered Deuteronomy xv, Q, as showing that the 
Hebrews were admonished not to deny money to the poor on 
account of the approach of the Sabbatical Year, during which 
it could not be exacted ; but that nothing further than this 
could be educed from that passage. — Jahn's Biblical Archaeo- 
logy, by T. Upham, A. M. sect. 79, 350, pp. 86, 444. 
Andover, (America,) 1823, 8vo. 

Calmet gives the following reasons for this ordinance : — 
(1.) To maintain, as far as possible, an equality of condition 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 369 

\ 

among the people, in setting the slaves at liberty, and in permit- \ 
ting all, as children of one family, to have the free and indis- 
criminate use of whatever the earth produced. — (2.) To inspire- 
the people with sentiments of humanity, by making it their ; 
duty to give rest, proper and sufficient nourishment to the' 
poor, the slave, and the stranger, and even to the cattle.* — (3.) To I 
accustom the people to submit to, and depend on, the Divine 
providence, and expect their support from that in the seventh 
year, by an extraordinary provision on the sixlh.-~-(4<.) To detach 
their affections from earthly and perishable things, and to 
make them disinterested and heavenly-minded. — (5.) To show 
them God's dominion over the country, and that HE, not they, i 
was lord of the soil ; and that they held it merely from his 
bounty. — (6.) To recall to mind the memory of the Creation, \ 
by the weekly Sabbath, the seventh year, and the Jubilee ory 
week of years. 

" That God intended to teach them the doctrine of Provi- 
dence, by this ordinance, there can be no doubt : and this is 
marked very distinctly: (Levit. xxv, 20, 21:) 'And if ye 
shall say, What shall we eat the seventh year ? Behold, we 
shall not sow nor gather-in our increase : Then I will com- 
mand my blessing upon you, in the sixth year, and it shall 
bring forth fruit for three years.' That is, there shall be, not 
three crops in one year, but one crop, equal in its abundance 
to three, because it must supply the wants of three years. 
(1.) For the sixth year, supplying fruit for its own consumption.. 
(2.) For the seventh year, in which they were neither to sow nor 
reap. And, (3.) For the eighth year, for though they ploughed, 
sowed, &c. that year, yet a whole course of its seasons was 
requisite to bring all these fruits to perfection, so that they could 
not have the fruits of the eighth year till the ninth, (see v. 22,) 
till which time God promised that they should eat of ' the old 
store.' What an amazing proof did this give of the being, 
power, providence, mercy, and goodness of God ! Could 
there be an infidel in such a land, or a sinner against God and 
his own soul, with such proofs before his eyes, of God and 
his attributes, as one Sabbatical year afforded?" — Dr. A. 
Clarke's Comment. Exod. xxiii. 1 1 ; Calraet, Dictionnaire de 
la Bible ; Annee Sabbalique, 



370 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 

NOTE XLVL— Paee 222. 



The Jubilee was celebrated every fiftieth year, that is., after 
seven times seven years. (Levit. xxv, 8.) The return of the year 
of Jubilee was announced on the tenth day of the seventh month, 
Tisri, (September,) being the day of expiation or atonement, by 
the sound of trumpets or rams' horns. The Rabbins say, that 
every private man was bound to blow with a trumpet, and 
make this sound nine times, that every one might be the more 
inclined to hearken to the general proclamation, and fulfil the 
obligations of the festival. The uses of th Jubilee are thus 
enumerated by Dr. Godwyn : — " There were five main uses of 
this feast. First, for the general release of servants. Secondly, 
for the restoring of lands and tenements to their first owners 
who formerly sold them. Thirdly, thereby a true distinction 
of their tribes was preserved ; because lands returned unto 
their owners in their proper tribe, and servants to their 
own families. Fourthly, some are of opinion, that, as the 
Grecians computed their times by the number of Olympiads ; 
the Romans by their Ltistra ; the Christians by their Indictions; 
so the Jews by their Jubilees. Lastly, it mystically shadowed 
forth that spiritual Jubilee which Christians enjoy under 
Christ, by whose blood we have, not only a re-entry into the 
( kingdom of heaven,' which we had formerly forfeited by 
our sins, (and this was aptly signified by the Israelites' re-entry 
upon their lands formerly sold,) but also the ' sound of the 
Gospel," which was in this feast typified unto us by the noise 
of trumpets, is gone throughout the world ; and thus the 
e Lord God hath blown the trumpet,' as Zechariah's phrase is. 
(Zech. ix, 14.) But neither this release of servants, nor 
restoring of lands, was until the tenth day of the month Tisri, 
\jhe day of expiation or atonement,]] at which time it was 
proclaimed by the sound of trumpets or rams' horns. The 
nine first days of this month, the servants feasted and made 
merry, and wore garlands in token of their liberty approaching." 
■ — Godwyn's Moses and Aaron, lib. 3, c 10, p. 134- — 136 — 
Jahn's Biblical Archaeology, sect. 351. — Patrick's Comment. 
Levit. xxv. 8, 9, 10, 11. 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 371 

NOTE XLV IE—Page 222. 

" Maimonides, in his treatise on this subject, (c. tilt.) says. 
He that gave us the Law, knows the most intimate sense of 
all men's souls, and penetrates into the most secret recesses, 
and lurking places of human desires ; and He seeing that their 
love of riches would make them very saving ; so that, if out of 
a religious motion, they had consecrated any thing to Him, 
they would be prone to repent of it ; He therefore ordained, 
that if any man had a mind to redeem what he had con- 
secrated, he ' should add a fifth part to its just value:' that is, 
pay well for it." — Patrick's Comment. Levit. xxvii, 15. 

NOTE XLVIII.— Page 223. 

Among the Israelites in the time of Moses, it must have 
been very common to lend on pledge. But while pledges are 
under no judicial regulation, much extortion and villainy may 
be practised, when the poor man who wishes to borrow is in 
straits, and must of course submit to all the terms imposed 
by the opulent lender. Moses, therefore, to guard against some 
of the chief abuses of pledging, pi-ohibited the taking or 
keeping in pledge certain indispensable articles, such as 
the Upper Garment of the poor, which, like the hyke of the 
Arab, served him for clothing by day, and for a covering or 
blanket by night, (Exod. xxiii, 25, 26; Deut. xxiv, 12, 13,) 
and* the Upper and Nether Millstones which were necessary to 
provide him with food ; for as the Israelites had no public 
water or wind-mills, every one was obliged to grind his corn 
in his own house, and for that purpose had either a hand- 
mill, or one somewhat larger turned by asses, so that if he had 
been deprived of the mill-stones, however abundant his corn 
might have been, he and his family must have wanted bread. 
{Deut. xxiv, 6.) These instances are evidently given as 
examples, to shew, that, in general, no pledge was to be 
exacted from the needy, the want of which might expose him 
to an inconvenience or hardship ; more especially as we find 
the law-giver declaring, that God would regard the restoration 
of such pledges as alms-giving or righteousness. Nor was 
this attended with loss to the creditor ; since he had it in his 
power, ultimately, to seize the whole property of the debtor; 



37& NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

and if he had none, his person ; and in the event of non- 
payment, to take him for a bond-slave. The law gave him 
sufficient security, but prevented him from exercising 
unauthorized severity. — See Michaelis's Commentaries on the 
Laws of Moses, vol ii, Art. 150. 



NOTE XLIX.— Page 225. 

The following remarks on Slavery as permitted by the 
Jewish laws, are worthy the author and translator of those 
elegant apologues, the " Hebrew Tales." 

" Slavery. — The limited and qualified toleration of slaves 
as the less of two evils, by a law, which, in its own scheme 
and spirit, supplied a constant antidote, affords no justification 
of slavery under different circumstances ; and much less, of its 
abuses. 

" ' If I did despise the cause of my man-servant or my maid- 
servant, when they contended with me ; what then shall I do 
when God riseth up ? and, when He ariseth, what shall I 
answer him ? Did not He that made me in the womb make 
him ? and did not one fashion us in the womb ?' (Job. xxxi, 
13—15.) 

" That slavery is an evil, and an evil of great magnitude, no 
one possessed of common sense will for a moment deny. The 
Divine legislator has himself acknowledged it as such, by 
numbering it among the heavy maledictions which would 
befal the Israelites, should they ever forsake the religion of 
their ancestors ; and by the various laws which he instituted 
for its amelioration. That he did not entirely interdict it, we 
must attribute to the then state of society, which would not 
admit of its total abolition, without introducing still greater 
evils. 

" For let it be recollected, that the period when the Divine 
law was first promulgated, this system of human misery had 
already existed for ages. The noxious weed had grown up 
and flourished in its full vigour, it overspread the fairest 
part of the globe, and was too deeply rooted to be at once 
eradicated. 

" Bat although he did not entirely abolish slavery, he broke 
asander some of its most tremendous shackles, and so limited, 



MOTES AND ILLUSTKATIONS. 373 

circumscribed, and ameliorated it, that it hardly merited that 
odious name. 

"There Avere only two extreme cases in which a Hebrew 
could be reduced to a state of bondage. First : when an 
individual guilty of theft could not make the restitution which 
the law adjudged, in which case the proper authorities might 
sell him * in order to make the required compensation. 
Secondly, when an individual was reduced to such extreme 
indigence, as to prefer slavery to an actual state of starvation,? 
when the law allowed him to dispose of his person.— In both 
cases, the period, as well as the nature of the service, was limited 
by law. The master was enjoined still to look upon the 
wretched man, as on a poor unfortunate brother whose mise- 
rable condition ought to excite compassion. He dared not 
employ him in any very laborious or degrading work, was 
obliged to maintain his wife and children, though not entitled 
to the produce of their labour; in short, he was required to 
treat him with such mildness and forbearance X that the Hebrew 
writers have justly observed, 'that he who purchases a Hebrew 
slave purchases a master instead of a servant.' The Heathen 
slave purchased by a Hebrew, was, it is true, not so well off; 
as neither the period nor the nature of his service was limited; 
nor could he acquire property, for whatever the slave possessed 
belonged to his master. 

"But even over him the law spread its protecting shield; for 
though it suspended his civil, it protected his moral and per- 
sonal rights. It provided him with many opportunities by 

* They could only sell him for the term of six years, at the expiration of 
which, or at the commencement of the Jubilee, as either of them chanced to 
happen first, he regained his freedom. 

-j* In such a case, the individual might dispose of himself for any period ; 
but still, when the Jubilee arrived, he regained his freedom, though the term 
agreed upon had not then expired. In either of the above cases, the slave 
might redeem himself at any time, by paying the master a proportionate part 
of the purchase-money which the law compelled the purchaser to accept. 

$ "Thou must not," says the traditional law, "eat fine bread, and give 
him (the slave) coarse bread, drink fine wine, and give him an inferior sort, 
sleep on a bed and let him lie on straw, but thou must in every respect treat 
him as thou dost thyself." 



374 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

which he could gain his freedom :* it secured his life by making 
the killing of a slave, or even the causing his death by immo- 
derate correction, a capital crime punishable with death ; it 
protected him against cruelty, by obliging the master to give 
him his freedom in case he wantonly injured any of his limbs, 
or even knocked out any of his teeth ; and it sheltered him 
against unprovoked insults, and insured him good treatment, 
by that benign mildness and benevolence which its Divine 
precepts were so well calculated to inspire. That savage 
cruelty and remorseless barbarity, which the Heathen exercised 
towards their slaves, could never exist under the Hebrew laws ; 
the followers of which were strictly enjoined to extend kind- 
ness even to brute animals, much more to human beings. 
Accordingly, we find that the Israelites treated even their 
Heathen slaves with the greatest forbearance and mildness ;t 

* The Heathen slave might, before he had performed an act of servitude 
to the purchaser, become a proselyte, and thus acquire his freedom at once. 
All that the purchaser could then require of him was the repayment of the 
purchase-money. The master might, at any time, give him his freedom, or it 
might be purchased for him by any of his friends. 

Lastly, the master was compelled to give it him, in case he deliberately 
maimed his limbs, or knocked out any of his teeth. 

•f " Though the law," says Maimonides, " did not expressly enjoin us not 
to treat the Heathen slaves with rigour, yet piety and justice require us to be 
merciful and kind to them. — We ought, therefore, not to oppress them nor 
lay heavy burdens upon them : nay, we ought to let them partake of the same 
food with which we indulge ourselves. Our pious ancestors made it a rule to 
give their slaves a portion of every dish prepared for their own use ; nor would 
they sit down to their meals before they had seen that their servants were properly 
provided for ; considering themselves their natural protectors ; remembering 
what King David said, ' Behold, as the eyes of slaves are directed towards 
their masters, and as the eyes of the handmaid towards her mistress,' &c. 

" Equally improper is it to insult them either by words or blows. The law 
has delivered them over to subjection but not to insult. Nor must we bawl at 
them, or be in a great passion with them, but speak to them mildly and attend 
to their reasonable complaints. Such conduct Job considered as very merito- 
rious, as he said, " If I ever did despise the cause of my slave or handmaid 
when they contended with me, what then shall I do when the Almighty rises 
up ?«" &c. 

" Cruelty and violence characterize Heathen idolaters; but the sons of 
Abraham, the Israelites, whom the Holy (blessed be his name!) has so emi- 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 375 

and, indeed, many of them carried their humanity so far, as 
never unnecessarily to rebuke them, nor to speak harshly to 
them, nay, they would even let them partake of the same 
food on which they themselves subsisted, well knowing that 
a slave has feelings as well as the master, and ever bearing 
in mind the words of Job, 'that the same Maker that formed 
the master, formed the slave, and that they were both 
fashioned in the same mould.' " — Hurwitz's (Hyman) Hebrew 
Tales, No. LV. pp. 153— 158. Lond. 1826, 12mo. 

On the subject pf. Slavery, it is pleasing to .mark the 
influence of Christianity in repressing its cruelties and gradu- 
ally inducing its entire abolition. The following historical 
observations and extracts will elucidate the progress of emanci- 
pation from slavery, and exhibit the powerful, but ultimately 
successful, struggle of the Gospel with the barbarous and 
idolatrous prejudices of the inhabitants of the Northern 
■countries of Europe. 

At an early period Slave-Markets were regularly established 
in various parts of Europe, especially at Rome, Bristol, and 
other places; but when the Christian religion was at length 
received by the different nations of this part of the world, it 
totally changed the ancient trade. On one side the precepts 
of Christianity were spread among barbarians, and the doctrine 
of equal rights, to which nature and a future life entitle all 
human beings, without the least exception, made the slave- 
trade gradually to cease. On the other hand, the importation 
of slaves, and all traffic of this nature, were severely prohibited. 
" There is no council held," says Hildebrand, in his "Historia 
Conciliorum," "where the abolition of the slave-trade has not 
been a serious object." Besides, a doctrine was established 
by the clergy, that eternal salvation would be the surest 
reward for the emancipation of slaves ; nay, the Christian 
priests and confessors obliged their penitents, who had no 
slaves in their possession, to buy some and manumit them 
in the presence of the people assembled in the church. The 

ncntly distinguished by wiseand just laws, ought to be kind and compassionate, 
and as merciful as He of whom it is said, ' He is good to all, and his mercy 
extends over all his works.'" — Maimonides Yad Hachzakah, B. 4. 



376 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Norwegian Law., called " Gulethings Law," says, — " The slave 
shall be brought into the church, and the Holy Bible laid on 
his head, which being done, he shall be free." The priests 
themselves set good examples, they purchased slaves, particu- 
larly youths of a good and promising appearance, received 
them into orders, and thus made them entirely free. 

St. Bonifacius tells us, that the newly converted Germans 
sold their slaves to their infidel neighbours for human sacri- 
fices, which, at length, was stopped by Gregory the second, 
who made the offender guilty of a capital offence. Charloman 
ordered the synod of Leptin, in the year 743, that a man who 
sold his slave to an infidel should be infamous, and excom- 
municated in the same manner as a murderer, if the slave, thus 
sold, was intended to fall a victim to the gods: And in 
Norway, it was absolutely forbidden to sell a slave out of the 
kingdom, unless he had committed an enormous crime. — With 
a view to promote the abolition of this savage custom, which 
proved to be fatal to persons of the most exquisite beauty, 
and the most exalted character, it was enacted, that the cere- 
monies of emancipation among the Christians should resemble 
the form of the heathen sacrifices, and engage in the same 
way the imagination both of Christians and Heathens. By 
this means the slaves obtained a chance of liberty ; and were 
often brought to the church, placed on the altar, and sym- 
bolically sacrificed to the true God. 

The national assemblies of the Heathens commenced with 
the bloody worship, and the Christians passed a law, that on 
such occasions a slave should be made free, and the expense 
of the feast at which he obtained his liberty defrayed by the 
public. The ancient Norwegian law before the year 1222, 
(Part 1, c. 3,) says, "We shall manumit a slave in our annual 
assembly at Gula ; each member shall emancipate his slave by 
turn, and the whole assembly shall pay six ounces of silver, 
in order to defray the expenses of the feast of liberty. Who- 
ever neglects to procure a slave in his turn, shall be fined in 
twelve ounces of silver to the bishop, and the assembly shall 
be obliged to buy a slave at their own expense, for the above 
mentioned purpose." 

The liberty of a man's selling into slavery his own children, 
was restrained to certain rules. They begun by enacting, that 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 377 

the child which was sold for a slave, should recover its liberty 
by paying the sixth part of the purchase-money to the master* 
And it was further ordered, that no such slave should be 
exported out of his native country. 

At length the duration of this kind of slavery was reduced 
to the certain term of seven years, or, as the Icelandic law 
called Geagas, which prevailed from the year 928 till the year 
1267, more equitably ordered it, till the purchase-money and 
expenses made on the slave were re-imbursed. 

It is difficult to fix the certain sera when the emancipation 
of slaves was universally introduced in Europe ; for though 
JBoden points out the year 1250, in his book De Republica, 
yet we know that slavery lasted much longer in some countries. 
The abolition of the slave-trade was a very serious object of 
the legislative power, through more than four centuries, for 
we find no council of the middle age without one canon at 
least relative to this business. 

The civil government gave every support they could afford 
to so pious and so benevolent endeavours of the Church ; and 
both agreed, that the undertaking could only be accomplished 
by slow degrees. The steps adopted for this purpose were on 
one side to forbid the exportation of slaves, to throw the slave- 
trade into the hands of Christians, who ought to know their 
common duties, and to make some regulations concerning a 
humane treatment of the slaves. On the other hand, laws 
were passed that opposed the home-traffic, and rendered it as 
difficult as possible. 

In the year 779> Charles the Great passed a law that no 
slave should be exported out of his tlominions ; and in the 
council at Rheims, it was enacted, that the slave-trade should 
only be carried on by Christians, and that a man who sold his 
slaves either to a Jew or a Heathen, should be excommu- 
nicated, and that the contract should be void. Kidnapping was, 
however, very frequent among the Christians, particularly in 
Nordalbingia, (the present Dukedoms of Schleswick and 
Holstein,) who used to force those Christians who had 
fled to them from their Heathen neighbours, to re-enter the 
slavery, and suffer themselves to be re-sold to their former 
masters ; till at length, St. Anschar, archbishop of Hamburgh, 
prevailed on them to abolish this disgraceful custom, and to 



378 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

issue a law, " that whoever should be accused of kidnapping, 
should clear himself by the judgment of God, (so the ordeal 
was then called,) and should be excluded from the rights of 
of producing witnesses, or taking the oath prescribed by 
common law ;" a law which bordered very near upon that of 
the Jews : (Exod. chap. 21 :) « And he that stealeth a man, or 
if he be found in his hand, he shall surely be put to death." 
What Charles the Great and the synods, in different parts. of 
Germany, France, and Italy, had enacted, with respect to the 
slave-trade, was followed by other princes. 

For Canute the Great, king of England, passed a law, 
" That no Christian should be sold for exportation." This same 
law had been enacted before, viz. in the synod of Enham, in 
the year 1009, — " Ne Christiani et innocentes extra Patriam 
vendantur." 

By such means the foreign slave-ti*ade decreased, and could 
only be carried on by fraudulent means, and by a description 
of persons who were carefully watched by the bishops, whom 
a synod had authorised to inquire throughout their respective 
dioceses, "■ whether slaves were exported; whether a Christian 
were ever sold to a Jew or Heathen ; or, whether a Jew dealt 
in slaves who professed to be Christians ?" The famous 
market at Bristol, where the slaves were imported from all parts 
of England, and there sold to Irish merchants, who continued 
to buy slaves from England during the reign of King John, was 
much depressed and diminished by St. Wulfstan, whose 
example was imitated by the second synod of London, which 
enacted, " Nequis illud nefarium negotium, quod hactenus in 
Anglia solebant homines sicut bruta animalia venundari, 
deinceps ullatenus facere praesumat." 

In Norway, few steps were taken towards the abolition of 
the slave-trade before the year 1270. The law, which, till that 
time, guided all civil business, was passed by King Hacon, 
who began his reign in the year 1222, and died in the year 
1263. In this law much is spoken of the slaves, Avho seem to 
have been happier in Norway than in any other part of 
Europe ; for the slave could obtain his liberty by a prescrip- 
tion of twenty years, and the law guarded his life against the 
master, who, for having killed his slave, was liable to be 
punished as a murderer. The slave who destroyed his infant 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 379 

child, was considered as one of the greatest offenders ; but as 
they had no capital punishments in Norway at that time, the 
punishment was being sold for exportation. The slave had some 
property accruing from his own industry, when not employed 
in his master's service ; a property which sometimes enabled 
a skilful slave to recover his liberty. Snorro Sturleson, in 
Historia Rer. Norvegicar. Havn., 1777, vol. ii, in the life of 
King' Oluf, remarks, that, the King, dissatisfied with some great 
men in the county of Thundhem, which then laboured under 
scarcity, forbade the inhabitants of the southern parts of 
Norway, to give even the least relief to their brethren in the 
North. A near relation of the famous Einar Thambaskielfer 
came to him and asked for corn ; Einar, having fully explained 
the impropriety of complying with desires contrary to the 
proclamation of their royal master, said, " My slaves, for 
whose actions I am by no means legally bound, possess corn 
in plenty, it is their property, and they can dispose of it 
according to their own pleasure." The slaves in Denmark 
appear to have enjoyed the same privilege. The master of a 
slave could not refuse him his liberty, when offered the 
purchase-money: nay, it was sufficient if half the sum was 
delivered. The manumission prescribed in the same law, 
(Frostathing's Law of Hacon Haconson, parti,) is particularly 
curious : — " If a slave takes land and settles, then shall he give 
an entertainment, called the Feast of Liberty, the expenses of 
which shall be nine bushels of malt and a ram. A free-born 
man shall cut off the head of the ram, and the master shall 
unlock the collar * surrounding the slave's neck. If the master 
refuses to grant the slave leave to give the Feast of Liberty, then 
shall the slave request it before two witnesses, and in their 
presence invite his master with five friends of his. The slave 
then shall prepare the entertainment, and let the uppermost 
seat be ready to receive his master and mistress. Thus the 
slave shall recover his liberty, which recovery he shall prove 

* In the museum of the Antiquarian Society at Edinburgh, is a metal 
collar, constructed with a ring for receiving a padlock, with the followiug 
inscription: — " Alexander Stewart found guilty of death, for theft at Perth, 
the 5th of December, 1701, and gifted by the Justiciary as a perpetual servant 
to Sir John Erskine, of Alva."— This collar was found in the grave of the 
deceased, in the burial ground at Alva. 



380 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

by those who were present at the feast, against all attempts 
which his master may pursue for the future." Such was the 
state of the law in Norway when it was totally abolished, 
in the year 1270, by King Magnus, called the " Reformer of 
the Law." 

During the existence of slavery in Denmark, it much 
resembled the Roman ; and it is uncertain how or when the 
Danish slaves were emancipated — In Sweden, the state of 
slavery fell and rose in the same degree as it did among her 
neighbours. In Upland, the servitude was abrogated by King 
Byrger, in the year 1295, and King Erie Magnusen spread the 
blessing of liberty over the rest of that kingdom in the year 
1335, for the purpose, as he said, of following God, who has 
rescued the whole of mankind from slavery. 

From these extracts and observations it appears, that slavery 
is an evil characterizing nations in a state of barbarism, and must 
serve to convince us that Europe would never have attempted, 
much less have effected, the happy alterations which have taken 
place within her own limits and dominion, had she not first 
received the humane doctrines of Christianity. — See Professor 
Thorklyn's Essay on the Slave Trade, passim. London, 
1788, 8m 

NOTE L.— Page 226. 
" These different regulations are as remarkable for their 
justice and prudence, as for their humanity. Their great 
tendency is to shew the valuableness of human life, and the 
necessity of having peace and good understanding in every 
neighbourhood ; and they possess that quality which should 
be the object of all good and wholesome laws — the prevention of 
crimes. Most criminal codes of jurisprudence seem more 
intent on the punishment of crimes, than on preventing the 
commission of them. The law of God always teaches and 
warns — that his creatures may not fall into condemnation; 
for judgment is his strange work, i. e. one reluctantly and 
seldom executed, as this text is frequently understood." — 
Dr. A. Clarke's Comment. Lev. xxii, at the end. 
NOTE LI— Page 233. 
A Shekel was worth about three shillings of our money; so 
that a slave was valued at 4/. 10*., and a freeman at double, 
or 9/- 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 381 

The price or estimated value of slaves and captives has 
generally fluctuated with existing circumstances; and in many 
places, at different periods, they have been regarded as articles 
of barter, and frequently exchanged for horses, arms, and 
loaves of bread, and meat. Lullus, archbishop of Mentz, asserts, 
that he saw a horse exchanged for a male- slave. St. Rembert, 
archbishop of Hamburgh, received from the heathen Danes, 
a great number of their slaves for the horse upon which he 
rode, and whom he purchased in order to instruct in 
Christianity, and then liberate. Jornandes tells us, that the 
Goths exchanged their slaves for a piece of bread and meat. 
Among the Franks, the price of a skilful slave was ten shillings 
of gold ; but in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, the regular 
price never exceeded one mark of silver, or one pound twelve 
shillings sterling; and in Wales, a slave was equal to a head of 
cattle. A slave was, everywhere in the northern parts of Europe, 
sold with the same forms and solemnities as a horse or any 
other beast; except in Denmark, where a proclamation before 
a court of law was ordered to precede the sale ; and the same 
custom was paid for an imported slave as for an ox, viz. 
a saiga or penny, if the slave was to be sold. The slaves being 
chained together, were brought to market and sold in lots, 
each lot containing a number of slaves. Thus, St. Eligius, 
bishop of Noyons, often bought twenty, thirty, fifty, nay, 
whole ship-loads in such lots, consisting of men, women, and 
children, from Germany, Britain, Italy, and the Levant. 
Helmold beheld at one time, in the market at Meckl en burgh, 
seven thousand Danes exposed to sale. At that time, certain 
merchants engaged only in this branch of trade, principally 
Jews, especially in France, and acquired considerable pro- 
perty by this nefarious traffick. But none of these European 
slave-dealers were more savage than the inhabitants of Verdun, 
who, having emasculated the boys, sold them at an immense 
price to the Arabs, who were then settled in Spain. On the 
other hand, the Saracens raised an incredible number of slaves 
for- the Venetians, who sold them publicly at Rome. In 
Iceland, a singular law existed relative to the poor, and which 
deserves to be noticed for the reverence to parents which it 
exhibits ; it is found in the law of the republic of Iceland, 
called " Gragaas," in the book i-elative to the Poor, c. i. — It is 
as follows r — 

Be 



382 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

"1. Be it enacted, That the son maintain his mother, in 
preference to his other relations. 

" 2. That he support his kindred, as long as he can afford 
it, in the following order ; first his father, then his own 
children, and next after them his cousins. 

" That the claims of his other kindred be relative to his 
right of coming to the inheritance of them. If the son have 
no fortune, then shall he sell himself into slavery for the 
support of his father ; who, on the mother's situation being 
more aggravated, shall give up his place to her, and he shall 
be supported by his nearest relations. 

" The father has the alternative of selling himself and his 
children into slavery, on account of their education. 

" If a person aforesaid be found to beg, then shall he 
who ought and could support that person, pay a fine to the 
public." 

This servitude or slavery was, however, to last no longer 
than the urgent necessity continued.— See an " Essay on the 
Slave Trade," pp. 7—10, 17. 

NOTE LIL— Page 229- 

"The Roman lawyers laid it down as a sound maxim 
in jurisprudence, ' That he who found any property, and 
applied it to his own use, should be considered as a thief, 
whether he knew the owner or not ; for, in their view, the 
crime was not lessened, suppose the finder was totally ignorant 
of the right owner.' — Qui alienum quid jacens, lucri faciendi 
causa sustulit, furti obstringitur, sive scit, cujus sit, sive 
ignoravit ; nihil enim ad furtum minuendum facit, quod cujus 
sit, ignoret. — Digestor. lib. xlvii ; tit. ii ; leg. xliii, sect. 4. 
On this subject, every honest man must say, that the man who 
finds any lost property, and does not make all the inquiry to 
find out the owner, should, in sound policy, be treated as a 
thief. It is said of the Dyrboeans, a people who inhabited the 
tract between Bactria and India, that if they met with any lost 
property, even on the public road, they never touched it. 
This was actually the case in this kingdom, in the time of 
Alfred the Great, about A.D. 888; so that golden bracelets 
hung up on the public roads were untouched by the finger of 
rapine. One of Solon's laws was, Take not up what you laid not 
down. How easy to act by this principle in case of finding 



NOTES AKD ILLUSTRATIONS. 383 

lost property : ' This is not mine, and it would be criminal 
to convert it to my use, unless the owner be dead, and his 
family extinct/ When all due inquiry is made, if no owner 
can be found, the lost property may be legally considered to 
.be the property of the finder." — Dr. A. Clarke's Comment, on 
Levit. vi. 4. 

NOTE 1,111— Page 229- 

Six of the cities given to the Levites, were appointed as 
cities of refuge, to which the manslayer, or he who had 
accidentally occasioned the death of another, without " malice 
aforethought," might flee, as to an asylum, and be protected 
from the goel or avenger of blood. (Numb. xxxv. 11.) To 
give the unhappy individual every possible advantage in his 
flight, it became the duty of the Sanhedrim, to make the roads 
that led to those cities convenient and wide, and remove every 
thing out of the way that could possibly obstruct his flight. 
No river was to remain without a bridge, the road was to be 
everywhere levelled, and be, at least, thirty-two cubits broad. 
At every turning, posts were erected with the inscription, 
" Refuge — Refuge," in order to guide him in the way ; and 
two students in the law were appointed to accompany him, 
that if the avenger (who was always the next heir to him that 
had been killed) should overtake him before he reached the 
city, they might endeavour to pacify him, and induce him to 
suspend his revenge till the fugitive was either condemned or 
acquitted in a court of justice. When the manslayer arrived 
at the city gates, he was examined by proper persons, who were 
to determine whether he deserved protection. If the inquiry 
was satisfactorily answered, he was received into the city, until 
he could be brought before the court of judgment in the 
city where the fatal occurrence had happened. If the court 
decided, that the death of the deceased had been casually 
occasioned, the unfortunate manslayer was sent back to the 
city of refuge, to remain there till the death of the high-priest. 
A convenient habitation was assigned him ; and, according to 
the declarations of the Jews, the inhabitants were obliged to 
teach him some trade, by which he might be able to support 
himself. To render their situation more comfortable, the 
mothers of the high-priests used to feed and clothe these 



384 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

refugees, that they might not pray for the death of their sons, 
upon whose decease they were all restored to liberty. No 
person, however, had the benefit of refuge but the ignorant 
and involuntary manslayer ; but no money or interest could 
purchase his liberty before the time appointed. If he died 
before his release, his bones were delivered to his relations, 
after the death of the high-priest, to be buried in the 
sepulchre of his fathers. — Lewis's Antiquities of the Hebrew 
Republick, vol. i. b. 2, c. 13, pp. 184 — 187- — See also Jahn's 
Biblical Archaeology, sect. 264, p. 326. — -Home's Introduction 
to the Critical Study of the Scriptures, vol. iii. p. ii. c 3, sect. 4, 
p. 145; and Carpenter's Popular Introduction to the Study of 
the Holy Scriptures, p. ii. c. 2, sect. 4, p. 296-. 

NOTE LIV.— Page 231. 

In order to increase the abhorrence of murder and homicide 
among the Israelites, and to represent it as polluting both the 
land and the people ; or in other words, in order, not only to 
deter them from murder, but to make every man, who knew 
any thing of a murder, disposed to give every information 
concerning it, there was, in the case of a murdered person 
being found in the fields, and his murderer remaining unknown, 
a certain ceremonial ordained by way of expiation. The statute 
relative to it is recorded in Deut. xxi, 1 — 9. — The reason for 
bringing the heifer into a valley, through which ran a stream 
of water, is said by Abendana, to be, that the inhabitants of 
each city might be the more careful to prevent such murders, 
being otherwise in danger of losing the best ground that 
belonged to their inheritance ; for the land where the body 
was found was never to be sown any more. In this valley, 
one of the elders or magistrates coming behind the heifer 
struck oft' her head ; for so the murderer was supposed to have 
treacherously surprized the slain man. If the murdered man 
was found before the heifer's head was struck off, it was suf- 
fered to return to the pasture amongst the other cattle; but the 
murderer was to be cut off by the sword. Such a ceremonial 
was peculiarly necessary to give publicity to such an event, at 
a period when the modern means of communicating intelligence 
by the press did not exist; and it was, therefore, useful in con- 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 385 

tributing to place men's lives in greater security. Hence it 
has been well observed by a learned prelate, that, "no (other) 
ancient law made such provision for the discovery and expia- 
tion of secret murders as this of Moses. For the very best of 
them, which is that of Plato, enacts no more than this, That 
if a man was found dead, and he that killed him, after a 
diligent search, could not be heard of, public proclamation 
should be made, that he who was guilty of the fact should not 
come into any holy place, nor any part of the whole country ; 
for if he were discovered and apprehended, he should be put 
to death, and be thrown out of the bounds of the country, and 
have no burial." — Lib. ix, de Legibus, p. 874; Michaelis's Com- 
mentaries on the Laws of Moses, vol. iv, art. 278, p. 253 ; 
Lewis's Antiq. of the Hebrew Republic, b. vi, c 8, p. 170; 
Bishop Patrick's Comment, on Deut. xxi, 9- 

NOTE LV— Page 232. 
The earliest notice we have of the Lex Talionis, or returning 
like for like, is Exod. xxi, 24, 25. It constituted one of the 
celebrated Roman laws of the XII Tables, but was afterwards 
changed to a pecuniary fine to be levied at the discretion of 
the Prsetor. It is still continued in the Canon Law, in the 
case of the Calumniator, who is adjudged to the punishment he 
intended to have inflicted upon another. The arguments for 
and against this peculiar mode of judgment, by the Lex 
Talionis, may be found at length in Michaelis's " Commentaries 
on the Laws of Moses," vol. iii, art. 240, 241, 242. Distin- 
guishing betwixt the exercise of justice by civil authority in 
the state, and the extension of mercy by individuals to those 
who have injured them, he defends the principle, when regu- 
lated by law, as in the case of the Israelites, and modified by 
limitations according to the character and degree of civilization 
of the respective nations among whom it is exercised ; and 
considers the Lex Talionis under the direction of the magistrate, 
as guarding the nation against the infliction of infuriated 
revenge, by exasperated individuals. 

NOTE LVI.— Page 233. 

The substitution of pecuniary mulcts for such injuries as 
those described Exod. xxi, 18, 19, were wise and excellent 



386 NOTES AND ILLUST11ATIONS. 

institutions ; and most courts of justice still regulate their 
decisions, in similar cases, by these precepts. — The Jews say 
that satisfaction was to be made to the injured person for the 
loss he had sustained in five particulars ; — for the hurt in his 
body ; — the loss of his time ; — the pain he had endured ; — the 
charge of physician or surgeon ; — and the disgrace. Upon 
which the Hebrew doctors observe that, some men being able 
to earn more by their labour than others ; and the disability 
occasioned by the stroke, being greater or less, of longer or 
shorter continuance, a proportionate compensation must be 
made to the person injured, regulated by these considerations 
and others of a like nature. — See Patrick in loc. 

NOTE LVII— Page 233. 

The meaning of the precept, in Exod. xxii, 9, appears to be, 
that when a man had affirmed he had either deposited certain 
things with another, or had lent them to him, or that the 
accused person was charged with having taken them ; that, in 
such cases, both parties should be brought before the judges, 
and a legal examination should take place. If it appeared that 
the accusation was unjust, then he who pretended to have 
deposited the goods was adjudged to pay double the value of 
the things pretended to have been dishonestly retained ; but if 
the accusation proved to be true, then the fraudulent person was 
ordered to pay that amount to the man whom he had defrauded. 
■ — It is added by the Hebrew lawyers, that, if the goods had 
been lost by mere chance, nothing was to be paid ; and if a 
man brought an action against another, about such things as 
those mentioned already, and the defendant acknowledged part 
of the charge but denied the rest, he was to restore to the 
extent of the confession he had made, and to be put upon his 
oath as to the part which he denied ; or if he denied the whole* 
and he that brought the accusation had but one witness against 
him, he was allowed to clear himself by an oath. — See Patrick 
in loc. 

NOTE LV III.— Page 234. 

The true reasons of the difference between the fines of 
restitution for oxen, and those for sheep, seem to be, not only 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 387 

that, as Maimonides supposes, an ox might be more easily 
stolen than a sheep, but because it was of greater value, and 
also of more vise in husbandry. — Lewis's Antiq. of the Heb. 
Republick, vol. iii, B. 6, c. 10, p. 177. — Pastoret, Moyse 
considere corame Legislateur et corame Moraliste, chap. 5 § 5. 
p. 445, Paris, 1788. 8vo. 

NOTE LIX— Page 234:. 

A false witness, according to the law of retaliation, (Jus 
Talionis,) was to be punished with the same punishment 
which was decreed against the crime, in reference to which he 
had falsely testified. (Deut. xix, 16 — 21.) Some of our excel- 
lent English laws have been made on this very ground. In 
the 37th of Edw. Ill, ch. 1 8, it is ordained, that all those 
who make suggestion shall incur the same pain which the 
other should have had, if he were attainted, in case his sugges- 
tions be found evil. A similar law was made the 38th of 
the same reign, c. 9- By a law of the Twelve Tables, a false 
witness among the Romans was thrown down the Tarpeian 
rock ,- and among the Athenians an action lay not only against 
a false witness, but also against the person who produced him : 
a fine was laid upon them, and they were declared infamous ; 
and if they were found thrice guilty of this crime, they, and 
their posterity were declared infamous to the latest generation. 
< — Clarke and Patrick in Deut. xix, 19- 

In the time of Christ, the Jus Talionis, (see Note 55,) was 
confounded with moral principles, i. e. it was taught, that 
the law of Moses, which was merely civil or penal, rendered 
it perfectly justifiable, in a moral point of view, for a person 
to inflict on another the same injury, whatever it might be, 
which he himself had received. (Matt, v, 38 — 40.) The per- 
sons who expounded the law to this effect, do not appear to 
have recollected its true character, as a civil or penal law, nor 
to have remembered that the literal retaliation could not take 
place until after the decision of a judge on a suit, brought 
by the person injured, and then was never to exceed the 
original injury.— Jahn's Biblical Archeaeology, by T. C, 
Upham, sect. 256, p. 315. 



388 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

NOTE LX.—Page 235. 

Bishop Patrick renders Levit. vi, 4, — "When he hath sin- 
ned and acknowledges his guilt." By this translation he recon- 
ciles the contradiction which appears betwixt this law and that 
in Exod. xxii, 1, 7, Q, where a five-fold restitution is required; 
and adds, " that the reason of the difference betwixt these 
laws is, because in Exodus he speaks of those thieves who were 
convicted by witnesses in a court of law, and then con- 
demned to make such great restitution ; but here, of such as, 
touched with a sense of their sin, came voluntarily and acknow- 
ledged their theft, or other crime, cf which nobody convicted 
them, or at least confessed it freely when they were adjured; 
and, therefore, were condemned to suffer a less punishment, and 
to expiate their guilt by a sacrifice." — This interpretation, he 
thinks, is confirmed by Numbers v, 7, where the first words 
may be translated, " If they shall confess their sin that they 
have done," &c. and deems this explanation preferable to the 
one given by Maimonides. — See Patrick in loc. and Lewis's 
Antiq. of Heb. Rep. vol. ii, b. 4, c. 10, p. 536; vol. iii, 
b. 6, c. 10, p. 177. 

NOTE LXI.— Page 236. 

The Capital Punishments among the Jews, inflicted by 
the Sanhedrim, or house of Judgment, were. — Stoning, Burning, 
Slaying with the sword or Beheading, and Strangling or Hanging. 
Of these, Sto?iing was accounted the most severe. Burning 
was regarded as worse than the sword, the Sword worse 
than strangling, and Strangling or Hanging the easiest. 

Stoning was practised among many other nations beside the 
Jews. By the laws of Moses, the witnesses were to throw the 
first stone against the criminal, and after the witnesses, the 
people. (Deut. xiii, 10, xvii, 7; Joshua vii, 25; John 
viii. 7-) 

Burning was a punishment variously executed ; sometimes 
by a fire made of faggots, and which was probably the mode 
practised in the cases mentioned in Levit. xx, 14; — xxi, 9- — 
1L Elieser Ben Zadok says, he saw a priest's daughter thus 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 389 

burnt for fornication ; (Patrick in toe.) — sometimes, if the 
Rabbins are to be believed, by pouring melted lead down the 
throat of the living criminal ; sometimes the body was con- 
sumed by fire, after the condemned person had been stoned. 
(Joshua vii. 25.) 

Slaying with the sword or decapitation. — Decapitation, 
or beheading, was a method of taking away life that was 
known and practised among the Egyptians, (Gen. xl. 17 — 19,) 
and was also in use among the Jews, as is clear from 2 Kings 
x. 7; Matt. xiv. 10; but it may be doubted, whether this was 
the usual method of putting to death, designated by the 
expresssion, " slaying with the sword," which was most 
probably effected by plunging the sword into the bowels of 
the criminals, though used for destroying them in any way by 
that weapon. 

Strangling or Hanging. — The Jews say that the male- 
factor was placed up to the loins in dung, a napkin put round 
his neck, which was drawn tight by two of the witnesses, who 
acted as executioners, until he was strangled to death. Of 
this, however, there is no proof in the Scriptures. The 
hanging, or suspension on a tree, which is there spoken of, was 
a posthumous disgrace inflicted on the body of one who had 
been previously executed. (Joshua viii. 29, x. 25 ; Numb, 
xxv. 4, 5.) 

The other punishments mentioned by Maimonides are, 
Death by the hand of God ; Excision or Cutting off ; 
Scourging; and Reproof or Admonition. 

Death by the hand of God, or by the hand of 
Heaven, is understood by the Jewish writers to mean, a 
sudden and signal punishment inflicted by the immediate power 
of God, and not by the authority of any human magistrate. 
This death was supposed to be merely personal, and not to 
affect children or posterity. The words, lest they die, so fre- 
quently used in the Law, in relation to Aaron and his sons, or 
the affairs of the sanctuary, are interpreted by them, as 
referring to this punishment. 

Excision or cutting off, was understood to be a deeper 
degree of indignation, and a more awful stroke, than Death by 
the hand of Heaven ; and was thought to signify a premature 
death, to die without children, and to forfeit the happiness of 



390 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 



the other world — « Cut off," as the meaning evidently is, from 
all the blessings and privileges of that Covenant which God 
had made with Israel. — On the precept respecting the Sabbath, 
(Exod. xxxi. 14,) it has been excellently remarked, by the 
learned Selden, (Be Synedriis,) from Eliah ben Moseh, a 
Karaite writer, that, he who violates a negative precept, either 
does it secretly, which is the most frequent, or openly, which 
but seldom happens, unless he be an apostate, and profligate 
wretch. Now, the Scriptures threaten him that secretly 
breaks the Sabbath with « cutting off," by the hand of God, 
according to what is written in this place. Incestuous and 
unlawful conjunctions are similarly threatened, (Levit. xviii. 
29,) because they are committed secretly. — But if any one did 
any work openly on the Sabbath, so that there were witnesses 
of it, he was to be stoned, according to what is said, Numb, 
xv. 25 J though if he did it by mistake, either secretly or openly, 
he was only to bring a sacrifice for his error ; and if he 
offended against any of the decrees of the Wise- Men about 
the Sabbath, he was to be beaten. Or, if there were no 
Court of Judgment in the place, (as now, in their present 
condition,) then all such transgressors were left to God to 
punish them, whatever was their crime. 

Scourging was twofold, either with rods, or with thongs. 
The former was in use among the Romans, as well as the latter ; 
but the latter only amongst the Jews. The person who was 
convicted of a crime, and was sentenced to be scourged, was 
extended, upon the ground, and the stripes, which were never 
to exceed forty, were inflicted on his back, in the presence of 
the judge. (Dent, xxv, 2, 3.) — Afterwards, the Jews, for 
fear of exceeding the number prescribed by the Law, fixed it 
at thirty-nine, which were inflicted in their synagogues. (Matt. 
x, 170 They employed for the purpose a whip or scourge, 
with three lashes made of thongs from an ox's hide. Thirteen 
blows consequently inflicted thirty-nine stripes. (2 Cor. xi, 24.) 
When the sentence was to be executed, the prisoner was tied, 
by his hands to a low post or pillai*, a cubit and a half high, 
(according to the Rabbins,) so that his body " bowed down" 
upon it. (Deut. xxv, 2.) He was then stripped down to his 
waist, and the executioner standing behind him, on a stone, 
performed his office, whilst the chief judge repeated all or 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 391 

part of certain passages of scripture, viz. Deut. xxviii, 58 ; 
xxix, 9 ; and Psalm Ixxiii, 38 — -After having suffered the sen- 
tence of the law, no person was to be reproached for the 
punishment he had undergone, nor upbraided with the crime 
for which he had been punished. Sometimes, in atrocious 
cases, they fastened small bones, or pieces of lead to the 
scourges, or tied thorns to the thongs, (called, say the Jews, 
Scorpions, in 1 Kings xii, 12,) in order to render the punish- 
ment more terrible. 

Reproof, or Admonition, was an ecclesiastical censure, 
the same perhaps with St. Paul's Rebuke, 1 Tim. v, i. The 
person who lay under it, was to keep himself within doors, as 
one who ought to be ashamed of his conduct. He was not to 
appear in public, nor in the presence of him who pronounced 
the sentence, though others were not bound to avoid his com- 
pany, but might resort to his house. The occasions on which 
this censure was exercised were two, Money and Epicurism : 
On account of Money, when any one owing money to another 
did not pay it, and on being summoned before the Court, 
refused to pay it ; on account of Epicurism, when any one, by 
his disregard of the Divine law, proved himself to be a 
presumptuous person, governed by no rule, and circumscribed 
by no law.— Godwyn's Moses and Aaron, lib. 5, chap, vii ; 
viii — Lewis's Antiq. of the Heb. Repub. vol. i, c. 8, Q. — 
Jahn's Biblical Archaeology, sect. 257, 258, 259 — Leusden, 
Philologus Hebraeo-Mixtus, Dissert, xlvii, xlviii. Ultraject. 
1682, 4/o. 

NOTE LXII— Page 241. 

The " Hedges of the Law," as they were termed, were the 
injunctions and decisions of the Wise-Men of the Sanhedrim, 
designed to secure obedience to the Law. — "After the 
Captivity of Babylon iniquity abounded ; men's defects in what 
is good were innumerable, and their practices of what is ill 
incorrigible — To find out a proper remedy against this univer- 
sal corruption, and to bring about a true reformation, it is 
said the men of the Great Synagogue recommended to the 
judges, to be slow in judging; to the priests, to instruct a 
great number of disciples; and to the scribes, to make a Hedge 



392 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

lo the Law, in order to terrify the people from breaking 
through it. Actions indifferent in themselves were then pro- 
hibited or commanded, to the end that bad actions might be 
more carefully avoided, and good ones promoted and practised. 
The design was certainly innocent and good, but by these 
means, human inventions were substituted for the Law of 
God ; mere external forms and precepts took place of the 
eternal and unchangeable duties of religion and piety ; the real 
practice of true virtue was neglected, the most eminent men 
for learning and holiness of life, pharisees, scribes, doctors, 
and expounders of the Law, became very strict and jealous, 
even to superstition, in observing the rites and ceremonies of 
the Law, in outward purifications, in the washing of pots, 
and cups, and the like ; whilst they took no care at all to 
purify their own minds from all unrighteousness, and to 
practise those great duties which ai*e briefly summed up in the 
love of God and our neighbour." 

The decree of the members of the Great Synagogue 
or Sanhedrim, as given in the Pirke Avotli or Chapters 
of the Fathers, (supposed to be originally written by R. 
Juda, but afterwards added to the Mishna) is, "Be slow 
in judgment ; instruct a great many disciples ; and make 
a Hedge to the Law." — It is also a proverbial saying of 
the Jews, that " The Masorah is the Hedge of the Law." — 
Stehelin's Rabbinical Literature, or the Traditions of the 
Jews, vol. i, Prelim. Pref. p. 24, Lond. 1748, 8w.— Buxtorf. 
Lex. Talmud. 2»d. 

NOTE LXIII.— Page 243. 

The exculpation of the members of the Sanhedrim was not 
granted them individually and personally, but collectively and 
officially ; for this being the highest and most sacred tribunal, 
the punishment of its errors rested with God, the Supreme 
Head of the Theocratical Government. 

NOTE LXIV.— Page 244. 

"None were guilty of this crime," of sinning pre- 
sumptuously, or as it is literally in the Hebrew with a High 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 393 

Hand, " but those who, as the words immediately following 
express, ' reproached the Lord:' (Numb, xv, SO:) nor was 
any one considered as reproaching the Lord, but such as openly 
cast contempt upon his commands. Abarbinel restricts the 
crime of sinning ' with a high hand,' to those who deny the 
Law to be of divine origin, and that ' publicly, perversely, 
and deliberately.' — Abarbinel is followed by Grotius, (Numb, 
xv,) who contends that the phrase, "he that doeth aught 
presumptuously," is to be understood of one "who obstinately 
denies the being of a God, or the divine inspiration of the 
Law." — Outram, On Sacrifices, Diss, i, c, 13, p. 156. 

NOTE LXV.— Page 249- 

This view of the Mosaic precept is maintained also by our 
author, in his Yad Hachazakah, torn, iv, tit. 20, c. 8, 
Amstel. 1702, folio. — Dr. Prideaux has published this, and the 
two succeeding chapters with a Latin translation, and notes, 
in his Tract atus de Proselytis, c. iii, p, 137 — appended to R. 
Moses Maimonides De Jura Pauperis, et Peregrini apud Judceos, 
Oxon. 1689, 4>to. — But after comparing what Maimonides and 
other Jewish writers, as well as more modern Commentators, 
have said, and comparing their arguments with the sacred text, 
I am persuaded, that our author's judgment has been warped by 
the decisions of the Talmudists, who " have made the word of 
God of none effect by their traditions ;" and that the great 
objects of the Jewish legislator were, to check the licentiousness 
of the soldiery, and inculcate chastity and humanity; and not to 
give countenance to illicit gratifications or impure desires. If 
a soldier was attracted by the beauty of a female captive, he 
was permitted to marry her, though she was not one of his 
own nation, after he had allowed her sufficient time to mourn 
her separation from her relatives and to reconcile her to her 
situation ; but if, after having married her, he became dis- 
satisfied with her, though he might divorce her and " put her 
away," yet he was not suffered either to sell her or retain her 
as a slave, but was obliged to liberate her, and let her go 
whither she pleased, because, having cohabited with her as his 
wife, he had, to use the Scripture phraseology, " humbled 
her." — The sentiments of R. Bechai and Philo, both of them 



394- NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Jewish writers of eminence, accord with this representation, 
R. Bechai, says, " God would have the camp of Israel holy, 
and not defiled with fornication and other abominations, as 
the camps of the Gentiles :" And Philo observes, " Moses 
ordered every thing most excellently in this law : first, in not 
letting the reins loose to men's desires, but restraining them 
for thirty days ; in which time, secondly, a trial was made of 
his love, whether it was a furious ungovernable passion, or 
had something of reason in it, which advises us to do nothing 
suddenly, but after serious and long deliberation. And, 
thirdly, this was a merciful law to the captive ; that if she 
were a virgin, she might bewail her unhappiness in not being 
disposed of in marriage by her parents ; if a widow, that she 
had lost her first love, and was now to be married to one, who 
would be her lord, as well as her husband." — See Patrick on 
Deut. xxi, 11—13. 

NOTE LXVI.— Page 251. 

The process of Threshing, "is, in the East, more properly 
termed heading out the grain. It is performed by five or six 
oxen travelling round upon the same floor : when employed in 
this labour, the 'muzzling' of them is expressly forbidden 
by the Hindoo laAvs." — Tennant's Indian Recreations, vol. 2, 
p. 278. This kindness extended to oxen, by the Hindoo legis- 
lators, was probably derived from the far earlier precepts of 
the Mosaic code. It would also seem, that it was not merely 
the intention of the Jewish precept to provide for the welfare 
of " oxen," but to enjoin, with the greater force and effect, 
that a similar right should be allowed to human labourers, 
whether hirelings or slaves. Moses specified the ox, as the 
lowest example ; and what held good in reference to it, was to 
be considered as so much the more obligatory in reference to 
man. It would appear, therefore, that not only servants, but 
also day-labourers, might eat of the fruits they gathered, and 
drink of the must which they pressed. The wages of the latter 
appear to have been given them over and above their meat, 
and, in consideration of this privilege, to have been so much 
the less, as is the practice in our agricultural districts in 
England at present. The following decision of the Jewish 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. ^95 

doctors, is given in the Raba Mezia, fol. 83. "The workman 
may lawfully eat of what he works among ; in the vintage, he 
may eat of the grapes ; Avhen gathering figs, he may partake of 
them ; and in harvest, he may eat of the ears of corn. Of 
gourds and dates he may eat the value of a denarius." — 
Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, vol. ii, art. 
130, pp. 190, 191. 

How very differently humane, even towards the brute 
creation, is the ordinance of the Jewish legislator, to the prac- 
tice of other nations ; for, although the Egyptians, Greeks, 
and Romans used oxen in " treading out their corn," either 
with their feet, or by drawing a cart or other machine over 
it; yet, they were accustomed to prevent their eating the 
corn, some by muzzling them ; others, by daubing their mouths 
with dung ; others, by hanging a wooden instrument about 
their necks, which hindered them from stooping down ; and 
others, by putting sharp pricks into their mouths ; or keeping 
them without drink; or covering the corn with skins. — See 
Bocharti Hierozoicon, p. i. lib. 2. cap. 40, referred to by 
Patrick on Deut. xxv. 4. 

NOTE LXVII.— Page 252. 

Prior to the time of Moses, the father exercised the right of 
declaring the first son of the most beloved wife as the first- 
born with regard to the right of inheritance, though not 
actually so in point of age ; we may instance the cases of Isaac 
preferred to Ishmael, and Joseph to the older sons of Jacob. 
(Gen. xxL 10 — 14 ; xxiv, 36 ; xlviii, 5 — 7, compared with 
1 Chron. v, 2.) This right, which could not fail to occasion 
much secret ill-will, jealousy, and hatred, where polygamy was 
usual, was suspended by the Mosaic statute, which enjoined, 
that he should be recognized as the Jirst-born, who first made 
his appearance in the world, without any difference to the 
wife who was the most beloved ; and consequently assigned 
to him the double portion of the inheritance. (Deut. xxi, 
15—17.) 

" The right of Primogeniture in males," says Blackstone, 
" seems to have only obtained among the Jews, in whose con- 
stitution the eldest son had a double portion of the inheritance, 



596 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

in the same manner as with us, by the laws of King Henry the 
First, the eldest son had the capital fee or principal feud of 
his father's possessions, and no other pre-eminence ; and as 
the eldest daughter had afterwards the principal mansion, 
when the estate descended in coparcenary. The Greeks, the 
Romans, the Britons, the Saxons, and even originally the 
feudists, divided the lands equally ; some, among all the child- 
ren at large; some, among the males only. But when the 
emperors began to create honorary feuds, or titles of nobility, 
it was found necessary (in order to preserve their dignity) to 
make them impartible, or as they stiled them, fenda individua, 
and in consequence descendible to the eldest son alone. This 
example was farther enforced by the inconvenience that 
attended the splitting of estates ; namely, the division of the 
military services, the multitude of infant tenants incapable of 
performing any duty, the consequential weakening of the 
strength of the kingdom, and the inducing younger sons to 
take up with the business and idleness of a country life, instead 
of being serviceable to themselves and the public, by engaging 
in mercantile, in military, in civil, or in ecclesiastical employ- 
ments. These reasons occasioned an almost total change in the 
method of feudal inheritances abroad ; so that the eldest male 
began universally to succeed to the whole of the lands in all 
military tenures : and in this condition the feodal constitution 
was established in England by William the Conqueror. Yet 
we find that socage* estates frequently descended to all the 
sons equally, so lately as the reign of Henry the Second ; and 
it is mentioned as a part of our ancient constitution, that 
knights' fees should descend to the eldest son, and socage fees 
should be partible among the male children. However, in 
Henry the Third's time, we find that socage lands, in imita- 
tion of lands in chivalry, had almost entirely fallen into the 
right of succession by primogeniture, as the law now stands ; 
except in Kent, where they gloried in the preservation of their 
ancient gavelkind tenure, of which a principal branch was the 
joint inheritance of all the sons ; and except in some particular 

* Socage or Soccage, in its most general and extensive signification, 
seems to denote a tenure by any certain and determinate service ; and in this 
sense it is by our ancient writers constantly put in opposition to chivalry, or 
knight-service, where the render was precarious and uncertain. 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 397 

manors and townships, where their local customs continued 
the descent, sometimes to all, sometimes to the youngest son 
only, or in other more singular methods of succession." 

Amongst the Jews, various rights were attached to the 
Primogeniture : for (1.) they were peculiarly consecrated to 
God ; (Exod. xxii, 29 ;) — (2.) they were next in honour to their 
parents; (Gen. xlix, 3;) — (3.) they had a double portion of 
their father's goods; (Deut. xxi, 17;) — '(4.) they succeeded 
them in the government of the family, or kingdom ; (2 Chron. 
xxi, 3 ;) — (5.) they had the sole right of conducting the ser- 
vice of God, both at the tabernacle and temple ; and hence 
the tribe of Levi, which was taken in lieu of the first-born, 
had the sole right of administration in the Divine service. 
(Numb, viii, 14 — 17.) — See Michaelis's Commentaries on the 
Laws of Moses, vol. i, Art. 79, pp. 427—429 ; Blackstone, 
B. ii, c. 14, sect, iii; Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary on Gen, 
xxv, 31. 

NOTE LXVI1I.— Page 254. 

"From various passages of the Sacred Writings, it appears 
that the Sabbath was in part designed to afford a weekly rest 
and refreshment from the toil of worldly occupations. (Exod. 
xxiii, 12.) Of this rest, not only servants and labourers, but 
beasts of burden were to partake : a wise and merciful law, 
which extended the repose so needful for man to the brute 
animals subjected to his domination. Being also appointed to 
be kept holy to the Lord, it afforded a frequent opportunity 
for sacred meditation, and for such pious exercises as 
administer to the spiritual welfare of the soul. Time was thus 
allowed for the performance of many rites, and ceremonies, and 
obligations enjoined in the Levitical law. 

" Much as it contributed to the support of religion in general, 
it was specially designed to keep in memory the Creation of 
all things by Jehovah Elohim. This is the specific reason 
assigned for its adoption into the Mosaic polity. (Exod. xxi, 
11 ; xxxi, 17.) Great must have been the efficacy of this 
ordinance in restraining the Israelites from idol-worship, the 
besetting sin of that stubborn people. Being instituted in 
memory of the work of creation, every act of complinnce with 
C c 



398 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

the command was a virtual acknowledgment of the one Jehovah, 
in opposition to the numerous false deities of surrounding 
nations. The remission of their worldly employments on the 
seventh day, naturally called to remembrance God's creating 
the world in six days, and resting on the seventh. In the 
constant renewal of this recollection, their minds must have 
been as constantly impressed with the first and fundamental 
truth of all religion, the unity and omnipotence of the Deity. 
With every returning Sabbath, their thoughts were directed 
to the Supreme Being, who, existing eternally, infinite in his 
perfections, and the Creator of the universe, was alone deserv- 
ing their praise, their reverence, and worship." — See Holden's 
Christian Sabbath, ch. iii, sect, i, pp. 133 — 140. London, 
1825, 8vo. 

NOTE LXIX.— Page 255. 

The fifth day before the Feast of Tabernacles, viz. the tenth 
day of the seventh month or Tisri, ^September,] was the day 
of atonement or expiation. (Levit. xvi, 1 — 34; Exod. xxiii, 
26—30; Numb, xxix, 1 — 11.) It was a day of fasting, and 
the only one during the whole year, on which food was inter- 
dicted from evening to evening. (Levit. xxiii, 27—29 ; xxv, 
9.) — It was called the Feast, (or sometimes the Fast) of Expia- 
tion or Propitiation, because the High Priest then made con- 
fession unto God of his own sins and of the sins of the people ; 
and performed certain rites and ceremonies in order to expiate 
them, and make an atonement unto God for them — Upon this 
day, the high-priest was permitted to enter the holy of holies ; 
and, according to the later Jews, had the privilege, on this 
day, to pronounce the word Jehovah or peculiar name of God, 
which was never allowed to be spoken by any one but by the 
high-priest, and by him only on this day. 

The institution of this solemn day was first occasioned by 
Moses, on that day, coming down from the mount, after three 
several fasts of forty days, having obtained the reconciliation 
of God to Israel, bringing with him the renewed Tables, and 
a full commission to build the Tabernacle, and to set up divine 
worship amongst them — See Jahn's Biblical Archaeology, chap, 
iii, sect. 357, p- 452 ; Godwyn's Moses and Aaron, lib. 3, c. 8, 
p. 129; Lewis's Antiq. of the Heb. Rep. vol ii, c. 15, p. 571- 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 399 

NOTE LXX.— Page 255. 

The subjoined solution of the reason adduced by Maimonides, 
for celebrating the Passover for seven days, is from the pen of 
a learned friend. 

" Festum enim Paschatis quod attinet, cur septem diebus 
celebrandura sit, manifestum est ; quia nempe circumactio vel 
revolutio septum dierum est circumvolutio media inter diem 
Solarem et mensem Lunarem, qua? ut magnum habet (sicuti 
nosti) usum in rebus naturalibus, ita quoque in legalibus. 
Lex etenim perpetuo assimilatur naturae, et res naturales aliquo 
modo perficit." 

" The Paschal Lamb was always killed at the time of the 
Full Moon. If we suppose Saturday or the Jewish Sabbath to 
be the time of the Full Moon, and consequently the time of 
killing the Paschal Lamb, unleavened bread would be eaten 
from the fourteenth day of the Lunar month, until Saturday 
the 21st day, which being the ' Terminus/ or 'Circumactio,' 
or ' Revolutio,' of the seven days, would actually be the middle 
period, between the 1 4th day, the mean of the Lunar month 
and the following Sunday, the period signified by the terms 
1 solarem, vel naturalem diem,' by which we may consider the 
Saturday to be signified, independently of the time computed 
by the Moon. This will appear still more evident if we con- 
sider further the words of our learned author, ' Lex etenim,' &c. 
For as the Full Moon is a mean between the ' luna dimidiata' 
and the ( luna gibbosa,' so the ' terminus' of the week, in which 
the Passover is celebrated, is assimilated to nature, who, by 
her unerring law, makes the Full Moon, or the time from the 
Change to the Full, the mean of the Lunar month." 

NOTE LXXI.— Page 256. 

Maimonides explains his views more fully in his " Yad," in 
the treatise on Repentance, (c. 3,) where he says : " The sound 
of the Trumpet at this time, did in effect say, Shake off your 
drowsiness, ye that sleep ; and, being awaked, watch to your 
duty : Search and try your ways : Remember your Creator 
and repent. You, whom the vanity of the times hath led into 
a forgetfulness of the Truth ; who spend your days, wandering 
2 c 2 



400 MOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

after empty tilings which profit nothing, bethink yourselves, 
and take care of your souls. Let every one forsake his evil 
way, and his thoughts which are not good." 

Bonfrerius supposes that God put honour upon this month, 
because it was the seventh ; that as every seventh day was a 
Sabbath, and in every seventh year the land rested, &c, so 
every seventh month of every year was a kind of sabbatical 
month ; there being more feasts in this month than in any 
other month of the year. — See Bishop Patrick on Levit. xxiii, 
24,' — who adds, that the " Blowing of Trumpets" at this time 
was most probably designed as a memorial of the Creation of 
the world, which took place in Autumn, and was the reason 
why they anciently began their year at this time, as they still 
do in the East. 

NOTE LXXIL— Page 258. 

Pococke, in his Miscellanese, p, 170, 227, has shown, that 
the Jews believed that the fire of hell had no effect on any of 
their nation, because Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob came down 
to deliver them. This superstitious notion has been adopted 
from the Jews by the Mohammedans, who, although in con- 
tradiction to the Koran, believe, that, at the day of judgment, 
Christ, David, and Moses, will, by their intercession, deliver 
those from hell who have believed in their doctrine, even after 
it had been opposed by Mohammed. One of the principal 
maxims of the Jews is, that " all Israel partakes of eternal life." 
Another of their doctrines is, " God promised to Abraham, 
that if his children were wicked, he would consider them as 
righteous, on account of the sweet odour of his circumcision." 
To confute this, and other erroneous principles of the Jews, 
appears to have been the chief object of St. Paul, in his Epistle 
to the Romans. — See Marsh's Michaelis's Introduction to the 
New Testament, vol. iv. p. Q5 ; London, 1802, 8vo. 

NOTE LXXIII.— Page 258. 

The feast of In-Gathering, noticed Levit. xxiii, 36, 39, was a 
distinct solemnity ; though, from its immediately following the 
Feast of Tabernacles, it was usually regarded as the last or great 
day of that feast, and celebrated with still greater festivity. No 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 401 

servile work was to be done upon it, and praises were sung to 
God at the temple, with trumpets and instruments of music. 
Upon this day they read the last section of the Law, and 
likewise began the first, lest they should seem more joyful in 
ending their Sections or Parashioth than willing to begin 
them — Lewis's Antiquities of the Hebrew Republic, vol. ii, 
b. iv, c 21, p. 605. 

NOTE LXXIV— Page 25<). 

The Jews say, that the Booths or Tabernacles were to be 
made in the open air, or under the shelter of a tree, and 
neither to be covered with cloth, nor made too close with 
the boughs of which they were constructed; but to be 
left sufficiently open for the sun and stars to be seen, 
and the rain to descend through them. They were to 
remain in them as in their houses; and, consequently, to 
place household furniture in them, and regularly to sleep in 
them, except in rainy weather, when they were permitted to 
sleep in their houses, till the rain had ceased. In Nehemiah's 
time, some made their booths upon the flat roofs of their 
houses, others in their courts, and others in the streets 
(Nehemiah viii, 15; Deut xxii, 8.) — The Rabbins also teach us, 
that every man brought his burden of boughs every morning, 
or otherwise fasted that day ; and this burden they termed 
Hosanna. It appears to have been in allusion to this, that, 
when our Saviour rode into Jerusalem, the people cut down 
branches from the trees, and strewed them in the way, crying, 
" Hosanna to the Son of David." (Matt. xxi. 9.) 

On the first day of the feast, they prepared branches of 
palm, willow, and myrtle, and tied them together with gold or 
silver twist, or with other strings or twigs ; and these they 
carried in their hands every day of the feast. This practice 
probably gave rise to the calumny cast upon the Jews by 
Plutarch, who compares this feast to the drunken festival 
of Bacchus, in which the Bacchides ran up and down with 
certain javelins in their hands wrapped round with ivy, termed 
Thyrsi, and which, therefore, leads him to call the Jewish feast, 
OvQtTofogtciv the bearing about of Ike Thyrsi. 



402 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

At the close of the last day of the feast, the ceremony of 
drawing and pouring out water took place ; which was regarded 
with so much pleasure, that the Talmudists have a saying, 
that, " He who never saw the rejoici?ig of drawing water, 
never saw rejoicing in all his life.". — .The manner in which it 
was conducted, was this ; — .when the parts of the sacrifice were 
laid upon the altar, one of the priests with a golden tankard 
went to the fountain of Siloam, and there filled it with water. 
He then returned back into the court through the water-gate, 
and as soon as he arrived, the trumpets were sounded. After- 
wards he went up to the ascent of the altar, where two basins 
were placed, one of them having wine in it, and the other 
having the water poured into it ; after which the wine was 
poured into the water, or the water into the wine, and both 
poured out by way of libation. This custom is supposed to 
be referred to by our Lord, John viii, 37, 38 ; and by Isaiah 
xii, 3. — Godwyn's Moses and Aaron, lib. 3, c. vii, p. 1 16. — 
Lewis's Antiquities of the Hebrew Republic, vol. ii, b. iv, 
ch. xx, xxi, pp. 594 — 603, 605. 

NOTE LXXV— Page 260. 

" It was the proper office of the priests to bless the people, 
The Benediction was to be pronounced by the priest standing, 
so that he might be seen with his hands lifted up, and spread, 
and speaking with a loud voice, with his face towards the 
assembly. This was the form of the blessing — ' The Lorc^ 
bless thee, and keep thee : the Lord make his face shine 
upon thee, and be gracious unto thee; the Lord lift up 
his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.' (Numb, 
vi, 24, 25, 26.) There is nothing performed among the ' 
Jews with such solemnity, and in which they place so much 
sanctity, as in this solemn Benediction : and at this day, 
they that are of the family of Aaron, go up to the steps 
which lead to the place where the Book of the Law is kept, 
and lifting up their hands as high as their heads, pronounce 
the Blessing in their synagogues upon the assembly." — 
Lewis's Antiquities of the Hebrew Republic, vol. i, b. ii. 
c. 1, p. 138. 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 403 

NOTE LXXVI.— Page 260. 

For an explanation of the Phylacteries, Mezuzoth and 
Zizith, see the preceding note 24, page 349- 

NOTE LXVII.—Page 260. 

The " Purchasing the Book of the Law," refers to an annual 
practice among the Jews. On the 9th day of the Feast of 
Tabernacles, or 23d day of the month Tisri, (September,) a 
festival is celebrated called the Feast of the Joy of the 
Law, instituted, we are told, as a day of thanksgiving and joy, 
that they have been permitted to hear and study the Law 
another year. The last and first sections of the Law having 
been read, the books or MSS. of the Law contained in the 
ark or cupboard of the synagogue were taken out and carried 
round the synagogue ; lighted wax candles being usually 
placed in the ark during the ceremony, that it may not appear 
empty. " I have seen," says Leusden, " in the synagogue at 
Amsterdam, about sixty manuscripts, ornamented with gold 
and silver, and wrapped in the most costly coverings, borne by 
an equal number of persons, with the greatest pomp." After- 
wards apples, pears, nuts, and other fruits, were thrown amongst 
the boys who were present, that they might partake the general 

joy- 

The reading of the sections of the Law being completed on 
this day, several offices connected with it became vacant, which 
being highly valued, on account of the honour they were sup- 
posed to confer upon those who sustained them, were put up 
to auction and assigned to the highest bidder after the third 
proclamation. The principal of these offices were,— (1.) The 
lighting of the candles for the ensuing year : — (2.) The office of 
giving and carrying the wine to be consecrated on the Sabbath 
and other festival days : — (3.) Rolling and unrolling the manu- 
scripts of the Law : — (4.) Elevating the Law, in the sight of 
the congregation, after having been read : — (5.) Assisting in 
unrolling and rolling up the manuscript of the Law, by hold- 
ing and turning the ornamented rollers on which it was 
mounted, and supporting the cloth in which it was to be 
wrapped. 



404 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

The money arising from the sale of these and similar offices, 
was applied to the repairs of the synagogue and the relief of 
the poor. — Buxtorfii Synagoga Judaica, cap. xxvii, pp.543 — 
545. Basil. 1 66 1, 8vo. — Leusdeni Philologus Hebrseo-mixtus. 
Dissert, xxxix, pp. 279—281. Ultraject. 1682, Mo. 

NOTE LXXVIII.— Page 260. 

The diligent study of the Law was strenuously enjoined 
by the Jewish doctors. Maimonides, in his tract De studio legis, 
says, " Every Israelite, whether poor or rich, healthy or sick, 
old or young, is obliged to study the Law ; and even if so 
poor as to be maintained by charity, or beg his bread from 
door to door, and have wife and children, he must devote some 
time to the daily and nocturnal meditation of it ; for it is said, 
' Thou shalt meditate therein day and night.' " (Joshua i. 8.) 
He further enquires, " How long ought a man to pursue the 
study of the Law ?" and replies, " Till death, as it is said, 
* Lest they depart from thy heart all the days of thy life.' 
(Deut. iv, 9.) For when any one neglects to learn the Law, 
he forgets it. The time devoted to the study of the Law should 
be divided into three parts, the first of which should be dedi- 
cated to the reading of the Scripture, the second to the Oral 
Law, and the third to learning the dependence of things oa 
their principles, eliciting one thing from another, comparing 
things together, and acquiring the knowledge of the various 
modes of interpretation by which Scripture is explained, until 
he understands the chief heads of moral duties, and how to 
distinguish what is lawful or unlawful, and other similar 
matters drawn from tradition." So far indeed does our author 
carry his views on this subject, that he affirms, even "an 
artificer ought to devote nine hours a day to studying the 
Law, namely, three to reading the Scriptures, three to learning 
the traditions, and three to obtaining a knowledge of what 
may justly be deduced from them, or of the Gemara."~< 
Maimonides, De Studio Legis, a Clavering, pp. 4, 5, Oxon. 
1705. 4/o. 

NOTE LXXIX.— Page 26l. 

It is a strange oversight in our great author, to attribute the 
selection of Mount Moriah, as the scene of Abraham's offering 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 405 

up Isaac, to a compliance with the customs of the Heathen, when 
Moses has so expressly declared the displeasure of God against 
the practice of idolatrous sacrifices on Mountains and " High- 
Places." "These/' says he, "are the statutes and judgments, 
which ye shall observe to do in the land, which the Lord 
God of thy fathers giveth thee to possess it, all the days that 
ye live upon the earth. Ye shall utterly destroy all the places 
wherein the nations which ye shall possess served their gods, 
upon the high mountains, and upon the hills, and under every 
green tree: and ye shall overthrow their altars, and break 
their pillars, and burn their groves with fire; and ye shall 
hew down the graven images of their gods, and destroy the 
names of them out of that place. Ye shall not do so unto the 
Lord your God ;" that is, Ye shall not imitate them by choosing 
" high mountains and hills," &c. as the chief places of wor- 
ship. (Deut. xii, 1 — 4.) 

If any reason were to be given for the preference of Mount 
Moriah, as the place of the trial of Abraham's faith in the 
offering up of his son Isaac, a plausible one is offered by those 
commentators who suppose that this Mount Moriah, and the 
Mount Calvary on which the Redeemer was crucified, were the 
same ; and that the sacrifice offered by Abraham being a repre- 
sentative one, the place was called " Jehovah- Jireh" by 
Abraham, and a tradition kept up that "Jehovah should be 
seen in a sacrificial way on this mount, which was accom- 
plished in the fulness of time, when Jesus was offered on that 
very mountain, for the sins of mankind." 

The reader who wishes to pursue the subject of Heathen 
worship on Mountains and High-Places, may find ample oppor- 
tunity by consulting Young, On Idolatrous Corruptions in 
Religion, vol. i, pp. 214 — 230. 

NOTE LXXX.— Page 263. 



"Concerning the origin of Temples, as well as of almost 
all other things, there is variety of opinions. If we believe 
Herodotus, the Egyptians were the first that made altars, 
statues, and temples ; nevertheless, it does not appear there 
were any in Egypt in the time of Moses ; at least, he makes 
no mention of them, though he had frequent occasion to do it. 



406 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Lucian says also, that the Egyptians were the first that built 
temples, and the Assyrians took the custom from them ; but 
all this is uncertain: nor have we any thing more to be 
depended on, than what we find in Holy Scripture. The 
first mention that is there made, is of the Tabernacle, built by 
the order of God ; which was truly a portable Temple, and 
which had within it a more secret and sacred place than others, 
called the Sancta Sanctorum, to which the sacred and secret 
places in the Pagan temples, called Adyta, answered.— The 
first temple of the Heathens which the Scripture takes notice 
of, is that of Dagon, the god of the Philistines, in which was 
a statue of a human form. The Greeks, who were taught 
many things of the Phoenicians, may well be supposed to have 
learnt to build temples of them. But be that as it will, it is 
certain that the Romans borrowed from the Greeks both the 
Worship of the gods, and the form of their Temples."— 
Montfaucon's Antiquity Explained, vol. ii, b. ii, ch. i, p. 29- 
London, 1721, fol. edit. Humphreys. 

" Moses— only made an altar surrounded with twelve pillars, 
what we should call a Cromlech and Stone-Circle, in the 
construction of which, all hewn stones and iron tools were 
prohibited. Thus Stonehenge is of the most ancient form of 
Temples. 

" The proportions of the Temple of Solomon, a fine oblong 
square, (like Grecian temples, not like a college or inn of 
court, as in the editions of Josephus,) may be considered, says 
Mr. Wilkins, (Magna Graecia, Intr. viii, ix, xv,) the standard 
by which the early Greeks were directed in the construction 
of their temples." — Fosbrooke's Encyclopaedia of Antiquities, 
vol. i, c. iv, pp. 30, 31. London, 1825, 4to. 

NOTE LXXXL— Page 263. 

The Ark was sometimes called the Ark of God, and the Ark 
of the Lord, because upon it God was pleased to manifest him- 
self by the Shechinah or visible symbol of the Divine Presence ; 
and sometimes the Ark of the Testimony, and the Ark of the 
Covenant, because the tables of stone, called the Tables of the 
Testimony, which were Witnesses of the Covenant between 
God and the Israelites, were placed in it. It was a small chest 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 407 

or coffer, made of Shittim-wood, overlaid on the inside and on 
the outside with thin plates of gold. A border or wreathing 
of gold went round the top of it, which was called the crown ; 
and a cover of gold beaten or founded to the exact length and 
breadth of the ark, was then laid on, and preserved in its 
position by the golden border into which it was fitted. This 
cover, which had at each end a cherub of gold, beaten out 
of the same piece as the cover or lid itself, was denominated 
the Mercy-seat or Propitiatory. On or before this, the high- 
priest sprinkled the blood of the expiatory sacrifices on the 
great day of atonement ; and here God promised to meet the 
people. From the glorious symbol of the Divine Presence 
resting on the Cover or Mercy-seat, between the two cherubs, 
it is frequently said, in Scripture, that " He dwelleth between 
the Cherubim." (Exod. xxv, 10 — 22 ; xxxvii, 1 — 9-) 

It has been remarked in former notes, that the Heathen bor- 
rowed many of their rites and practices from the Hebrews, as 
appears to have been the case in the present instance, contrary 
to the conjecture of Maimonides, who supposes that the Jews 
derived the formation of the ark from their Pagan neighbours. 
— For it has been justly observed by a learned commentator, 
that " in many cases, they (the Heathens) seem to have studied 
the closest imitation possible, consistent with the adaptation of 
all to their preposterous and idolatrous worship. They had their 
JAO or JOVE, in imitation of the true JEHOVAH ; and 
from the different attributes of the Divine Nature, they formed 
an innumerable groupe of gods and goddesses. They had also 
their temples, in imitation of the temple of God; and in these 
they had their holy and more holy places, in imitation of the 
courts of the Lord's house ; and as there is no evidence, what- 
ever, that there was any temple among the Heathens, prior to 
the tabernacle, it is reasonable to conclude, that it served as a 
model for all they afterwards builded. They had even their 
portable temples, to imitate the Tabernacle ; and the shrines 
for Diana, mentioned Acts xix, 24, were of this kind. They 
had also their Arks, or sacred coffers, where they kept their 
most holy things, and the mysterious emblems of their religion; 
together with candlesticks or lamps to illuminate their temples, 
(which had few windows,) to imitate the golden candlestick in 
the Mosaic tabernacle. They had even their processions, in 



4U8 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

imitation of the carrying about of the Ark in the wilderness ; 
accompanied by such ceremonies, as sufficiently shew, to an 
unprejudiced mind, that they borrowed them from this sacred 
original." 

Apuleius, describing a solemn idolatrous procession, De Aur. 
Asin. lib. ii, after the Egyptian mode, says, " A chest or ark 
was carried by another, containing their secret things, entirely 
concealing the mysteries of religion." 

Plutarch, in his treatise, De I side, 8$c. describing the rites 
of Osiris, says, "On the 10th day of the month, at night, 
they go down to the sea ; and the stolists, together with the 
priest, carry forth the sacred chest, in which is a small boat or 
vessel of gold." 

Pausanias likewise testifies, (lib. vii, c. 19,) that the ancient 
Trojans had a sacred ark, wherein was the image of Bacchus, 
made by Vulcan, which had been given to Dardanus by 
Jupiter. — See Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary on Exod. xxv. 

NOTE LXXXII— Page 263. 

That the Ministry of Angels was frequent in the Patriarchal 
age, is evident, from the passages referred to by Maimonides. 
It must also be granted, that the Law was " ordained by 
angels, in the hand of a mediator," (Gal. iii. 19,) by their 
being the agents employed by the Divine Being, in transmit- 
ting the Law to Moses, who was, in that case, the mediator 
between God and the people ; (Deut. v. 5 ;) but it may justly 
be questioned, whether our author be correct in supposing, 
that prophecy is never communicated but by the ministry of 
angels, since many passages of the Holy Scriptures speak of 
the Prophetic influence, as being imparted directly, and with- 
out any intermediate agent, to the person prophesying or 
foretelling future events. — See amongst others, 1 Sam. x. 6, 10; 
Ezek. ii. 2 ; xi. 4, 5 ; 2 Chron. xv. i. 

NOTE LXXXIII.— Page 264. 

On the terms Asiierah and Asheroth, see Note 38, 
pp. 361, 362. 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 409 

NOTE LXXXIV.— Page 264. 

The following curious anecdote is related in the Mishna, 
under the title "Avoda Zara," or "Strange or Idolatrous 
Worship." 

"Some Roman Senators examined the Jews in this manner, 
'If God had no delight in the worship of idols, why did He not 
destroy them ?' The Jews made answer, ' If men had worship- 
ped only the things of which the world had no need, He would 
have destroyed the objects of their worship; whereas now, 
they worship the Sun, and Moon, and Stars, and Planets ; and 
then He must have destroyed His world for the sake of these 
deluded men,' ' But still,' said the Romans, 'why does not God 
destroy the things which the world does not want, and leave 
those things which the world cannot do without ?' ' Because, 
replied the Jews, ' this would strengthen the hands of such as 
worship these necessary things ; who would then say, Ye 
allow now that these are gods, since they are not destroyed.' " — - 
Wotton's Miscellaneous Discourses, vol. i, p. 145. 

NOTE LXXXV.— Page 264. 

It is probable that the two' C her ubims placed on the ark of 
the covenant, were emblematical representations of beings of 
an angelical nature. The shape or form of them, any further 
than that they were winged creatures, is not certainly known ; 
for the opinion of those writers, who suppose that they were 
similar in form to those which Ezekiel saw in his vision, is 
unsupported by any decisive proof, and can be regarded only as 
a conjecture. Be this as it may, we know they were two in 
number, one at each end of the mercy-seat, with their wings 
stretched out, so that one wing of each cherub touched the 
side of the tabernacle on which it was respectively placed, and 
the other wings met together over the middle of the ark and 
the propitiatory. Their faces turned inward, one toward 
another, added to their other positions, gave to the whole work 
of the ark, mercy-seat, and cherubim, the form of a seat which 
represented the throne of God. 

These Cherubim have been considered, by some, as designed 
to be emblems of Jehovah himself, or rather of the Trinity of 



410 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

persons in the Godhead. " But that God, who is a pure spirit, 
without parts or passions, perfectly separate and remote from 
all matter, should command Moses to make material and visible 
images or emblematical representations of himself, seems 
highly improbable ; especially considering that he had repeat- 
edly, expressly, and solemnly forbidden every thing of this 
kind, in the second commandment of the moral law, delivered 
from Sinai, amidst thunder and lightning, burning fire, black- 
ness, darkness, and tempest, pronouncing with an audible and 
awful voice, while the whole mountain quaked greatly, and 
the sound of the trumpet waxed louder and louder, ' Thou shalt 
not make unto thyself any graven image, or any likeness of 
any thing that is in heaven above, or in the earth beneath, or 
in the water under the earth : thou shalt not bow down,' " &c* 
Hence God's demand by his Prophet, " To what will liken me, 
or shall I be equal, saith the Holy One ?" Add to this, that 
in most or all of the places " where the Cherubim are men- 
tioned in the Scriptures, God is expressly distinguished from 
them. (Gen. iii. 24 ; Psalm xviii, 10 ; xcix, i ; Ezek. ix, 3 ; 
x, 4, 18) — It seems, therefore, much more probable, as 
Dr. Owen, Dr. Macknight, Mr. Pierce, and many other 
eminent Divines, have supposed, that they represented 
the angels who surrounded the Divine Presence in heaven. 
Accordingly they had their faces turned towards the mercy- 
seat, where God was supposed to dwell, whose face the angels 
in heaven always behold, and upon whom their eyes are 
continually fixed to observe and receive his commands ; as 
they are also upon Christ, the true Propitiatory, which 
mystery of redemption they desire, St. Peter tells us, to look 
into." (1 Pet.i. 12.) — Martindale's Dictionary of the Holy Bible, 
vol. i, art. Cherub. London, 1818, 8yo. 

NOTE LXXXVI.— Page 265. 

"Titus, after the overthrow of Jerusalem, A.D. 70, had the 
golden candlestick, and the golden Table of the shew-bread, 
the silver Trumpets, and the Book of the Law taken out of the 
temple, and carried in triumph to Rome; and Vespasian 
lodged them in the temple which he had consecrated to the 
goddess of Peace ! Some plants, also, of the balm of Jericho, 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 411 

are said to have been carried in the procession. At the foot of 
Mount Palatine there are the ruins of an arch, on which the 
triumph of Titus for his conquest of the Jews is represented ; 
and on which, the several monuments, which were carried in 
the procession, are sculptured, and particularly the golden 
candlestick, the table of' sherv-bread, and the two silver trumpets. 
A correct model of this arch, taken on the spot, now stands 
before me ; and the spoils of the temple, the candlestick, the 
golden table, and the two trumpets, are represented on the 
pannel, on the left hand, in the inside of the arch, in basso- 
relievo. The candlestick is not so ornamented as it appears in 
many prints ; at the same time, it looks much better than it 
does in the engraving of this arch given by Montfaucon, Antiq. 
Explic. vol. iv, pi. 32. It is likely, that on the real arch, this 
candlestick is less in size than the original, as it scarcely 
measures three feet in height. — See the Diarium Italicum, 
p. 122." — Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary on Exod. xxv, 31. 

NOTE LXXXVII— Page 265. 

Lighted Lamps were used in religious ceremonies, both by 
the Greeks and Romans. This, it is probable, as Montfaucon 
observes, was derived to the Gentiles from the Hebrews. The 
Athenians lighted lamps chiefly on the feasts of Minerva, 
Vulcan, and Prometheus. The Romans also used lamps in 
their temples, and on their solemn days. The square temples, 
in general, admitted no light but at the door ; and the Cella, 
Penetrale, Sacrarium, or Adytum, as it was variously called, was 
a dark, interior, walled building, similarly situated to the 
choirs of our churches, into which the people were not 
permitted to enter. These, therefore, must necessarily have 
been lighted by artificial lights. 

Lamps were also introduced into Sepulchres, some of which 
are said to have burned perpetually, and hence the fictions of 
lamps having been found burning, after the lapse of several 
ages. It is also a singular connection, that as many of the 
Gentile gods were deified heroes or patriots, sacrifices were 
offered at their tombs, and their sepulchres were the first 
temples dedicated to them. 

In the early ages, some Christians imitated the Heathen, by 
placing lamps in their sepulchres. Some lamps in the cabinet of 



412 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Genevieve have the monogram of Christ. — Montfaucon's 
Antiquity Explained, vol. v, pt. ii, b. 2, ch. 2, p. 138; ch. 3, p. 
140 — 142. London, 1722, fol. edit. Humphreys. — Foosbrooke's 
Encyclopedia of Antiquities, vol. i, ch. 4, pp. 30, 82, 33; ch. 9, 
pp. 281, 282. London, 1825, 4/o. 

NOTE LXXXVIII — Page 265. 

" This Reverence consisted principally in coming to it 
so prepared as the Law required ; in such purity and clean- 
linesss as was there prescribed; and then behaving themselves 
there with an awful humility. But the better to secure this 
reverence, the masters in Israel ordained that no man should 
come into the ' Mountain of the House' with a staff, or 
a sword, or a girdle with a purse, or with shoes on his feet ; 
and that no man should spit there, nor make it a thoroughfare, 
nor go out of it with his back towards the sanctuary, but go 
backward leisurely, with his face towards it, till he was out of 
the gate." — Patrick's Comentary on Levit. xix, 30, P. Cunaeus, 
De Repub. Heb. lib. ii, cap. 12, 13, pp. 245—256. Lugd. 
1617, 8vo. 

NOTE LXXXIX.— Page 266. 

Rabbi Shem Tob, in his commentary on this chapter of the 
More Nevochim, has the following judicious observations on 
the design of the Tabernacle and its Furniture : — 

" God, to whom be praise, commanded a house to be erected 
for Him, resembling a royal palace. In a royal palace are to be 
found all those things which we have mentioned. There are 
some persons who guard the palace ; others, who execute 
offices belonging to the royal dignity, who furnish the 
banquets, and do other things necessary for the monarch: 
others, who daily entertain him with music, both vocal and 
instrumental. In a royal palace there is a place appointed for 
preparation of the victuals, and another where perfumes are 
burned. 

" In the palace of a king, there is also a table, and an apart- 
ment exclusively appropriated to himself, which no one ever 
enters, except him who is next in authority, or those whom he 
regards with the greatest affection. In like manner it was the 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 413 

will of God to have all these in his house, that he might not 
in any thing give place to the kings of the earth. For He is a 
great king ; not indeed in any want of these things : but, 
hence it is easy to see the reason of the daily provisions given 
to the priests and Levites, being what every monarch is 
accustomed to allow to his servants. And all these things were 
intended to instruct the people, that the Lord of Hosts was 
present among us. ' For he is a great king, and to be feared 
by all the nations.' " — Outram, On Sacrifices, Diss. i. c. 3, p. 
48, edit. Allen. 

NOTE XC.-Page 266. 

These Altars were designed to be occasional and temporary 
only, the stated ones being at the Tabernacle ; they were 
therefore ordered to be formed of earth, or unhewn or 
unpolished stones, which might easily be thrown down, and 
neither draw the people from the Tabernacle, nor give 
occasion to idolatry by artificial workmanship or imagery. 
By these injunctions also, they were prevented from lavishing 
unnecessary expenses or time, on altars, which, during their 
journeying in the wilderness, and prior to the erection of the 
Tabernacle, they could not carry with them, and must be 
very frequently leaving behind them. (Exod. xx. 24 ; Deut. 
xxv ii. 5, 6.) 

NOTE XCI.— Page 266, 

The terms used by the Sacred Writer, and translated, 
" Graven, or Sculptured Images," are n * 5 W a f 2 N (aben 
masckhh.) Michaelis supposes, that these were stones with 
hieroglyphic figures engraven upon them, and that they wer 
connected with the Egyptian idolatries. The Egyptian god of 
learning, whom foreign nations called Hermes or Mercurius, 
was denominated Tholh, whom Jablonski (in Pantheon Egypt.) 
has shewn, to mean nothing more than stones, inscribed with 
hieroglyphic figures. An imitation of this species of idolatry 
appears to have been common among the Jews, so late as the 
time of Ezekiel, who in his prophecy, (Ezek. viii. 8 — 11,) 
describes a subterraneous vault, the walls of which were 
Dd 



414 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

covered with hieroglyphic figures of quadrupeds and creeping 
things, exactly like those in Egypt. According, therefore, to 
that fundamental principle of the Jewish polity, which dictated 
the prevention of idolatry, it became absolutely necessary to 
prohibit stones with hieroglyphic inscriptions ; besides, in an 
age where so great a propensity to superstition prevailed, 
stones with figures upon them, which the people could not 
understand, would have been a temptation to idolatry, even 
though the Egyptians had not deified them, as they actually did. 
— The very learned Bishop Patrick has a similar suggestion: — 
" Possibly," says he, " this may signify such images as were 
common among the Egyptians in after times ; which were not 
representations of their gods, but were full of symbols and 
hieroglyphics, expressing some of the perfections of their gods. 
These God would as little allow among his people, as any of 
the former." — Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, 
vol. iv. art. 250, p. 55; Patrick's Comment, on Levit. xxvi, 1* 

NOTE XCIL— Page 266. 

Herodotus tells us, the way to the Temple of Mercury 
had, on both sides, trees that reached up to heaven ; (Euterpe, 
p. 91 ;) and Homer sings, 

And build an altar in the woody grove, 
Near the clear flowing spring. 

Hymn in ApoLt. 

The very term by which a grove was designated in Latin, 
derived its name, Lucus, from the light arising from the sacri- 
fices and offerings of incense. — " A. luce sacrificiorum Lucus 
appellatum." — Nic. Perot, in Cornucop. Col. 16'5. SO. 

The Groves thus planted about idol temples and altars, 
became the resort of the lewd and profligate of all descriptions. 
" On this account, God would have no groves or thickets 
about his altar ; that there might be no room for suspicion, 
that any thing contrary to the strictest purity, was transacted 
there. Every part of the Divine worship was publicly per- 
formed, for the purpose of genera] edification." — Ridley's 
Melampus, Notes, pp. 176, 232, 233, 259- Mo. 17S1; Dr. A, 
Clarke on Deut. xvi. 21 ; see also Bishop Patrick, in loc* 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 415 

NOTE XCIII.— Page 267. 

The worship of Baal-Peor was the most obscene.that can be 
imagined. Rabbi Solomon Jarchi says, — " Eo quod distendebant 
coram illo foramen podicis, et stercus offerebant." — See Selden. 
De Diis Syriis, Syntag. i. cap. 5 ; Beyeri Additamenta, ad 
c. 5. See also for proof of the derivation from this worship, 
the Phallic and other similar rites of the Egyytians, Greeks, 
and Romans, and other nations, Schedius De Diis Germanis, 
Syntag. i. c. iv. Amsterod. 1 648, 8vo. 

NOTE XCIV.— Page 269. 

The Christian will find the true reason, a figurative one, of 
the High-Priest entering only a stated number of times into the 
Holy of Holies, in the Epistle to the Hebrews, ch. ix, that 
Epistle forming the most accurate and complete developement 
of the symbolical character of the Mosaic Ritual. 

NOTE XCV.—Page 272. 

Another reason also may be assigned for the hatred of the 
Egyptians to Shepherds, arising out of their national histoiy. 
Egypt had long been governed by its native princes, when 
certain strangers, called Hycsos, or Pastor, or Shepherd- Kings, 
from Arabia, or Phoenicia, invaded and seized a great part of 
Lower Egypt, and Memphis itself. These foreign princes 
governed about 260 years. Under one of them, Abraham 
visited Egypt, and was placed in critical circumstances by the 
beauty of his wife Sarah. This was about the year 1920 
before Christ ; and 95 years afterwards, Thethmosis or Amosis, 
having expelled the Shepherd-Kings, began to reign in Lower 
Egypt. About the year B. C. 1728, Joseph was sold into 
Egypt, and by an extraordinary chain of providences was 
raised to the chief dignity of the kingdom under Pharoah. 
Even at that period, the same prejudice was entertained 
against Shepherds, as in after ages ; for we find that the 
Egyptians would not eat at the same table with the Hebrews. 
(Gen. xliii. 32.) — See also Young, On Idolatrous Corruptions in 
Religion, vol. i. pp. 267— 272._ 

2 d 2 



416 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 

NOTE XCVI— Page 273. 

The Hebrew word d>1)!», which is used Levit. xvii. 1, 
literally means Goats, but is generally considered as intended 
to designate Daemons or Devils, which are supposed to have 
been worshipped under the form of Goats, or to have appeared 
under that or a similar form to their worshippers. Parkhurst's 
explanation of the term in his Lexion is, " Certain idols, 
representing the power of the heavens, in storms, tempests, 
rains. Most probably they were in the form of wild goats, or 
of other rough, shaggy animals." — See also Schedius, De Diis 
Germanis, Syntag. iv. c. 1, p. 489- 

The Satyrs, Sileni, Fauni, Pans, and Sylvani of the Romans 
were similar deities. There is not one of these several kinds 
to whom different authors do not give the horns and ears of 
a goat, the tail, thighs, feet, and legs of the same animal. — 
Montfaucon (Antiq. Explained, vol, i.) has given many repre- 
sentations of these figures. 

NOTE XCVII— Page 273. 

Dr. F. Buchanan informs us, that amongst the Jains, or 
A'rhatas, a sect in India, it is considered, " that to kill an 
animal of the cow kind is equally sinful with the murder of one 
of the human species. The death of any other animal, although 
a crime, is not of so atrocious a nature. — The Gurus (or 
Teachers) excommunicate all those who eat animal food.". — 
Asiatic Researches, vol. ix, pp. 283, 284, London, 1809. 8w. 
— Mr. Ward, speaking of the Hindoos generally, observes, 
" Nothing can exceed the abhorrence expressed by the Hindoos 
at the idea of killing cows, and eating beef, and yet the Vedu 
itself commands the slaughter of cows for sacrifice, and 
several Pooraniis relate, that at a sacrifice offered by Vishwa- 
mitru, the Bramhiins devoured ten thousand cows which had 
been offered in sacrifice."— Ward's View of the History, Lite- 
rature and Mythology of the Hindoos, vol. iii, p. 105, note; 
London, 1820, 8vo. 

NOTE XCVII I.— Page 274. 

"Among the Israelites it was provided by the Divine Law ? 
that no species of animals should be used for sacrifices, except 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 417 

such as were chosen from bullocks, goats, sheep, turtle-doves, 
or pigeons. These were the species most distinguished for 
gentleness ; they most abounded in Canaan, and were princi- 
pally in use for common food : and besides, it was a received 
opinion, among some nations at least, that some of these animals 
were proper objects of religious worship, but that they could 
not be slain without incurring the greatest guilt." — Outram, 
On Sacrifices, Diss, i, ch. 9, p. 113. 

NOTE XCIX.— Page 275. 

"When any one went to consult the Oracle of Trophonms, 
be carried with him into the den, cakes in his hands :"" — and, 
"the learned Spanheirn (in Nubes Aristoph.) has produced 
several instances of persons going into Trophonius's cave, and 
carrying with them always, cakes kneaded with Honey." — 
" Pure Honey was likewise burnt upon the altars to the Hea- 
then gods ; nay, there were scarce any of the gods, if any at 
all, who had not Honey burnt to them in sacrifice." — >Sykes's 
Essay on the Nature, Design, and Origin of Sacrifices, pp, 95, 
97, 116; London, 17S4, Svo. 

NOTE C— Page 275. 

Salt was the symbol of friendship and covenant ; it was also 
of an agreeable savour, and possessed the quality of preserving 
food from putrefaction ; and hence it is that a durable covenant 
is called, " a Covenant of Salt." (Numb, xviii, 19, et al.) — On 
these accounts, salt was to be used with all the meat-offerings 
duly presented, and sprinkled on the offerings when laid upon 
the altar. — Maimonides, however, is not correct, in supposing 
that the Heathen did not use salt in their sacrifices, unless, 
as might possibly be the case^, the idolaters in the time of 
Moses did not make use of it in their rites, but afterwards 

adopted it from the practice of the Israelites See Cudworth 

On the true Notion of the Lord's Supper, pp. 94 — 97 : — and 
Sykes's Essay on the Nature, &c. of Sacrifices, pp. 84—89- 

NOTE CI— Page 275. 

It was customary in the East, to make bread of flour and 
oil mixed together. The Persian Maza was barley-flour, mixed 



418 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

with oil and water, and was the daily diet of the Romans. It 
is still commonly used in India as an ingredient in the food of 
the natives. — Sykes's Essay on Sacrifices, p. 92. — Tennant's 
Indian Recreations, vol. ii, p. 125. 

NOTE CIL— Page 275. 

A two-fold reason may be given for the frequent burning 
of Frankincense ; for Jirst, it was a gum which on being burnt 
produced a strong and grateful odour, and was, therefore, 
peculiarly proper to prevent the offerers of oblations from 
being annoyed by the unpleasant effluvia arising from the 
slaughtering and burning of animal sacrifices ; — an advantage 
powerfully aided by the other suffumigations of a similar 
nature; — and secondly, the Frankincense thus offered was 
emblematical of the acceptableness of the prayers which 
accompanied the offering. — See Rev. v, 8 ; viii, 3, 4. — Sykes 
also adds, that "in the case of the Meat-Offering, the Frank- 
incense was to be burnt, the better to consume the offering ;" 
— and that, " it was found too in experience, that Frankincense 
had a peculiar efficacy in driving away or in destroying^'e? ; 
and by that means was of signal use, where there was much 
burning of flesh." — Sykes's Essay, On Sacrifices, pp. 95, 99- 

NOTE CIIL— Page 276. 

Of this rite, Maimonides (in Maase Korban, c. 6,) says, " In 
the room allotted for that purpose, they wash the fat of the breast 
as much as is necessary ; but the entrails, three times at the 
least : and these they wash om marble tables placed between 
the pillars." — But, to preserve the court from being polluted 
with filth, they were first washed privately in the washing-room ; 
and the operation afterwards repeated on the marble tables, 
from a belief that the coldness of the marble would check the 
tendency to putrefaction. — Cleanliness and purity were evi- 
dently the first objects of this repecited washing ; but Philo 
(De Animal, ad Sacrif.) supposes, the washing of the legs or 
feet, and entrails, to have conveyed important instruction — ■ 
" Nor is it without mystery that we are commanded to wash 
the feet and entrails. The washing of the entrails symbolically 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 419 

inculcates the necessity of being freed from unruly appetites, 
and purified from the stains contracted by drunkenness and 
gluttony, vices exceedingly pernicious to human life. The 
washing of the feet signifies that henceforth we ought to walk 
not on the ground, but through the skies." — Outram, On 
Sacrifices, Diss, i, c. xvi, p, 200. 

NOTE CIV.— Page 278. 

Dr. Outram in the conclusion of chap. ix. Diss. I. of his 
excellent work, " On Sacrifices," thus briefly sums up the 
arguments which he has advanced in it, to prove that (C the 
efficacy of all the Sacrifices primarily and properly had respect, 
not to men, but to God." 

" In the Jirst place, we have shown, that God appointed the 
Jewish sacrifices to be offered to himself with certain solemni- 
ties — Secondly, that those rites were designed and contrived 
to signify God's power over life and death, his authority to 
punish and pardon, and his supreme dominion over the 

universe Thirdly, that those rites by which any thing was 

thus offered or presented to God, partook of the true nature of 
Divine worship, though only of an external kind ; and had 
respect to God, as much as bowing the knee, bending the 
head or body, or any other similar ceremonies which are 
employed in sacred services as acts of Divine worship.— Lastly, 
that the sacrificial rites, whether performed by the offerer 
himself, or by the priest, were required to be performed in 
such a manner, that the external and symbolical worship 
should be accompanied by the worship of the mind ; by that 
faith in the providence, justice, and goodness of God, that 
reverence for his holy laws, that repentance for sins, and 
those purposes of future obedience, which become all sincere 
and pious men ; and whoever offered sacrifices with this state 
of mind, was accepted of God." 

NOTE CV— Page 281. 

Amongst the inhabitants of the hills near Rajamahall in 
India, when a Demauno or Dewassy, who seems to partake "of 
the twofold character of priest and conjurer, is tobe initiated; 



420 



NOTES AXD ILLUSTRATIONS. 



after having gone through several preceding ceremonies, " he 
approaches the door of his chief, and makes signs to have a 
cock, and a hen's egg brought to him ; the latter he immediately 
eats, and wringing off the head of the cock, sucks the reeking 
b/ooJ, and throws away the body." — " A Demauno drinks of 
the reeking blood of all offerings sacrificed while he is present." 
— " The Maungy of every village sacrifices a buffalo annually." 
On the day appointed, the Maungy sits on a sacred stool, with 
the Demauno on the ground on his left hand, who gives the 
Maungy a handful of unboiled rice, which he scatters, and 
prays for protection for himself and his dependants. Those 
who suppose themselves possessed of devils, run and pick up 
the rice ; and are then seized and bound, until the buffalo has 
been hamstrung, and his head cut off, when they " are set at 
liberty, and immediately rush forward to take tip the buffalo's 
blood, and lick it while reeking." — Asiatic Researches, vol. iv, 
pp. 39, 41, 42. London, 1801, 8vo. See also Dissertation V. 
on Blood, page 76- 

NOTE CVL— Page 282. 

The '.' pouring out" of the blood of the victims offered in 
sacrifice, (Levit iv. 18 ; Deut. xii, 27,) was regarded by Jews 
as expiatory : thus R. Moses Ben Nachman (ad Levit. i,J says, 
" It was just that his blood should be shed, and that his body 
should be burned. But the Creator, of his mercy, accepted 
this victim from him, as his substitute and ransom ; that the 
blood of the animal might be shed instead of his blood ; that 
is, that the life of the animal might be given for his life." — 
See this, and other similar quotations, in Dr. Outram's excellent 
work on Sacrifices, Diss, i, c. 22, p. 285, &c. 

The Pagans, also, in subsequent ages, at least, entertained 
the idea of the expiatory and cleansing influence of blood. 
The Tauroeolium affords an extraordinary instance of "the 
influence of this opinion. I quote an animated account of it, 
from Maurice's Indian Antiquities, vol. 5, c. 4, pp. 957 — 959- 
"They had sacrifices, denominated those of 'Regeneration ; and 
those sacrifices were always profusely stained with blood. 
The Taurobolium of the Ancients, a ceremony in which the 
high priest of Cybcle was consecrated, was a ceremony of this 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 421 

kind, and might be called a Baptism of Blood, which they 
conceived imparted a spiritual new birth to the liberated 
spirit. In this dreadful and sanguinary ceremony, according to 
the poet Prudentius, (cited at length by Banier, " On the Ancient 
Sacrifices,") the high-priest about to be inaugurated, was led into 
a dark excavated apartment, adorned with a long silken robe and 
a crown of gold. Above this apartment, was a floor perforated 
in a thousand places with holes, like a sieve, through which 
the blood of a sacred bull, slaughtered for the purpose, 
descended in a copious torrent upon the inclosed priest, who 
received the purifying stream upon every part of his dress, 
rejoicing to bathe with the bloody shower his hands, his 
cheeks, and even to bedew his lips and his tongue with it. 
When all the blood had run from the throat of the immolated 
bull, the carcase of the victim was removed, and the 
priest issued forth from the cavity, a spectacle, ghastly and 
horrible, his head and vestments being covered with blood, 
and clotted drops of it adhering to his venerable beard. As 
soon as the Pontifex appeared before the assembled multitude, 
the air was rent with congratulatory shouts ; so pure, and so 
sanctified, however, was he now esteemed, that they dared not 
approach his person, but beheld him at a distance with awe 
and veneration." 

It has been before observed, that, by these initiations or 
baptisms of blood, the ancients conceived that they had 
obtained an eternal regeneration or new-birth : nor were they 
confined to the priests alone ; for persons, not invested with a 
sacred function, were sometimes initiated by the ceremony of 
the Taurobolium ; and one invariable rule on the initiations 
was, to wear the stained garments as long as possible, in token 
of their having been thus regenerated. The sacrifice of regene- 
ration was also sometimes performed, for the purification of a 
whole nation, on the monarch that governed it. The animal 
sacrificed was not obliged to be always of one species ; instead 
of a bull, a ram was frequently sacrificed, when the ceremony 
was called Creobolium, and sometimes a she-goat, when it 
obtained the name of -^Egebolium." — See also Montfaucon's 
Antiquity Explained, vol. ii, pt ], b. 3, p. 106. 



422 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

NOTE CVIII.— Page 286. 
See Note 96, p. 41 6. 

NOTE CIX.— Page 288. 

If Maimonides intends, by this mode of reasoning, to sug- 
gest that human actions can become actually meritorious and 
expiatory in the sight of God, his system is certainly unscrip- 
tural. But, if he only meant to intimate, (as we are inclined 
to think,) how virtuous habits are to be acquired, so far as 
human effort is concerned, the following passages from his 
favourite author will illustrate his theory : 

"The habit of Moral Virtue, like all other practical arts, 
can be acquired or preserved by practice only. By building 
we become architects; by harping, musicians; and in the 
same manner, by acts of justice, we become just; and by acts 
of courage, com*ageous ; — and in proportion as we indulge or 
restrain the excitements to anger and pleasure, we become 
adorned with the habits of meekness and temperance, or 
deformed by those of passionateness and profligacy. In one 
word, such as our actions are, such will our habits become. 
Actions therefore ought to be most diligently attended to; 
and it is not a matter of small moment how we are trained 
from our youth. 

" We ought to consider to what extremes or faults we are 
most prone ; for different men are more or less easily beset by 
different faults or vices ; and what these are by which each is 
most liable to be entangled, he will best discover by attending 
to the pleasure which he has in indulging, or the pain in 
restraining them. In order to correct his character, he must 
bend it, in a contrary direction, as we straighten a crooked 
stick ; but, above all, he must beware of the blandishments of 
pleasure, of which we are seldom impartial or uncorrupt 
judges; treating this fair enchantress, as the aged senators in 
Homer did the beautiful Helen, whose words on this occasion 
cannot be too often repeated, nor their example too strictly 
imitated. 

They cry^, No wonder, such celestial charms 
For nine long years have set the world in amis ; 



NOTES AND ILLUSTK ATJONS 423 

What winning graces ! what majestic mein ! 
She moves a goddess, and she looks a queen ! 
Yet hence, Oh Heaven! convey that fatal face :, 
And from destruction save the Trojan race ! 

II. Hi, v. 203, &c. 

By thus banishing pleasure, we shall be less liable to error." — 
Aristotle's Ethics, vol i, B. ii, pp. 176, 190, London, 
1797, 4>to. edit. Gillies. 

NOTE CX— Page 291. 

Maimonides, in his treatise on " Repentance," says, " The 
Scape-goat expiates all the sins mentioned in the Law, 
whether light or heavy, whether committed through contu- 
macy or error, whether done ignorantly or knowingly. Every 
one who repents is thus atoned for by the Scape-Goat; but if 
any one do not repent, then only his lighter transgressions are 
expiated by the Scape-Goat." — Maimonides De Pcenilentia, 
a. Clavering, c. i, sect, v, p. 44. Oxon. 1705, 4/o. 

The sacrificing of the one goat, and the liberating of the 
other, was, in later ages at least, accompanied with numerous 
ceremonies, which the reader may find detailed in Lewis's 
Origines Hebrcece : Antiquities of the Hebrew Republic, B. iv, 
vol. 2. ch. 14, pp. 559—570; Spencer, De Legibus Hebrceorum, 
torn, ii, lib. iii, Dissert, viii, p. 450; and other writers on 
Jewish Antiquities. — Leo, of Modena, says, speaking of the 
later Jews, " The vigil or evening before this Fast, they were 
wont heretofore to use a certain ceremony with a Cock, swing- 
ing it about their head, and giving it up in exchange of them- 
selves : and this they called Caparah or Reconciliation." — Buxtorf 
adds, that the men took a while cock, and the women a hen, 
and swung the cock three times round the priest's head, 
saying, " This cock shall be a propitiation for me ;" and then 
killed it, confessing themselves to be worthy of death. — Leo 
of Modena's History of the present Jews. London, 1650.— 
Buxtorfii Synagog. Judaic, c. 20. 

The Aswamedha Jug, or Horse-sacrifice of the Hindoos, 
seems to have been derived from the Azazel or Scape-Goat of 
the Jews : for Mr. Halhed tells us, from a Hindoo commentary 
upon the Vedas, that " the Horse so sacrificed (or offered) is 



424 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

in the place of the sacrificer, bears his sins with him into the 
wilderness, into which he is turned adrift, and becomes the 
expiatory victim of those sins." — Maurice's Indian Antiquities 
vol, 2, p. 173.— See also Dr. A. Clarke's and Bishop Patrick's 
Commentaries on Levit. xvi, in which the subject is pursued 
at length. 

Bruce, the Abyssinian traveller, relates the following occur- 
rence, which took place at the time of his arrival at Yambo. — 
"We found, that, upon some discussion, the garrison and towns- 
men had been fighting for several days ; in which disorders the 
greatest part of the ammunition in the town had been expended; 
but it since had been agreed on, by the old men of both parties, 
that nobody had been to blame on either side, but the whole 
wrong was the work of a Camel. A Camel therefore was seized, 
and brought without the town ; and there a number on both sides 
having met, they upbraided the Camel with every thing that had 
been either said or done. — After having spent great part of the 
afternoon in upbraiding the Camel, — each man thrust him 
through with a lance, devoting him Diis manibus et Diris by a 
kind of prayer, and with a thousand curses upon his head. 
After which every man retired, fully satisfied as to the wrongs 
he had received from the Camel. The reader," adds Mr. Bruce, 
" will easily observe in this some traces of the Azazel or 
Scape-Goat of the Jews." — Bruce's Travels, vol. i, pp. 252, 
253. 4to. 

NOTE CXL—Page 292. 

"The true reason why Meat-Offerings and Drink-Offerings 
were required to attend upon the Burnt-Offerings and Peace- 
Offerings, was, because these sacrifices were a Feast, and are 
called the " bread" or food of God, (ch. xxviii, 2,) and there- 
fore as Bread and Wine, as well as flesh, are our refection, so 
God required them at his table." — Patrick's Commentary on 
Numb, xv, 5, — See also Sykes's Essay on Sacrifices, pp. 102 — 
110. 

"The Egyptians regarded Wine as a poison that sprang 
from the blood of daemons ; while Moses commanded it to 
be offered unto God, and to be drunken during the sacrifice- 
feasts." 

In the greatest part of Egypt no Olives were cultivated, and 



notes and illustrations. 425 

therefore no Oil was made. The oil of Palestine was most 
abundant and peculiarly excellent. — The use of it therefore 
insensibly attached the Israelites to Palestine in preference to 
Egypt, which was of great importance to their national 
comfort, especially as they had formerly longed to 
return to Egypt, merely to eat of its productions. — Michaelis's 
Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, vol. iii, Art 190, 191. 

NOTE CXII— Page 29S. 

Amongst the Jains, a Hindoo sect in India, " When a 
woman is unclean, she must stay at a distance from her rela- 
tions, in unchanged clothes, for four days. On the morning 
of the fifth day she is permitted to mix with her family after 
ablution." — Asiatic Researches, vol. ix, p. 251, 8vo. — And 
among the Inhabitants of the hills near Rdjamahall, " Women at 
certain times are considered impure : should one in such a 
condition touch a man by accident, even with her garment, he 
is defiled ; and for this offence she is fined a fowl, which is 
sacrificed, and the blood is sprinkled on the man to purify 
him." — Asiatic Researches, vol. iv. p. 7Q, 8vo. 

NOTE CXIII— Page 299- 

The reader who wishes to pursue the enquiry respecting the 
Pollutions and frivolous and tedious Ceremonies of the Heathens, 
may consult Montfaucon's Antiquity Explained, Ward's View of 
the History, Literature and Mythology of the Hindoos, and the 
Asiatic Researches, especially the Essays On the Religious Cere- 
monies of the Hindus by H. T. Colebrook, Esq. commencing 
in vol. v — A short extract or two from one of them may 
elucidate the subject: 

" If he happen to sneeze, or spit, he must not immediately 
sip watei*, but first touch his right ear in compliance with the 
maxim, ' After sneezing, spitting, blowing his nose, sleeping, 
putting on apparel, or dropping tears, a man should not 
immediately sip water, but first touch his right ear/ 

" I omit the very tedious detail respecting sins expiated by 
a set number of repetitions ; but in one instance, as an atone- 
ment for unwarily eating or drinking what is forbidden, it is 



426 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

directed that eight hundred repetitions of the Gdyatri should 
be preceded by three suppressions of breath, touching water 
during the recital of the following text : — ' The bull roars; he 
has four horns, three feet, two heads, seven hands, and is 
bound by a threefold ligature : he is the mighty resplendent 
being, and pervades mortal men.' The bull is justice person- 
ified.". — 'Asiatic Researches, vol. v, p. 348, and p. 356, Note. 

NOTE CXIV.— Page 302. 

See the preliminary Dissertation, " On Leprosy", p. 102. 

NOTE CXV.— Page 302. 

According to R. Abarbanel, "the living bir-d signified that 
the dead flesh of the leper was restored to soundness ; the 
cedar wood which is not easily corrupted, that he was healed 
of his putrefaction ; the scarlet-thread, or wool, ox fillet, that he 
was restored to a healthy complexion, his blood being purified ; 
and the hyssop which was purgative and odoriferous, that the 
disease was completely removed, and the bad scent that 
accompanied it, entirely gone." — Patrick's, and Clarke's Com- 
mentaries on Levit. xiv. 4. 

NOTE CXVI.— Page 303. 

" Typho was looked upon by the Egyptians as a dasmoniac 
power; and because they were of opinion that Typho was 
born of a red complexion, they were therefore used to devote to 
him, such of the Neat kind, as they found to be of a red colour: 
— Their hatred to Typho carried them so far, that they had 
certain solemnities, wherein, to abuse and affront him, they 
mishandled and abused such men as they found to have 
red hair. Nay, Diodorus tells us, (1. i.) that they anciently 
sacrificed such persons as had red hair like Typho, at the 
sepulchre of Osiris — In opposition to this idolatry, and to 
preserve the Israelites from being infected with it, God com- 
mands the Water of Expiation (Numb, xix.) to be made of the 
Ashes of a red heifer, without spot, that is, perfectly red. — The 
Heifer was to be red, that God's people might receive the 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 4S7 

benefit of being purged from their uncleannesses by a beast of 
that colour which was most abominable and abhorred by their 
idolatrous neighbours.— -As the Egyptians adored the Heifer 
with the most enthusiastical veneration, the Jews were to use 
it with the greatest contempt, as a polluted creature, not fit to 
appear in the presence of their God; to carry it without the 
camp, to the place where they put malefactors to death ; and 
there to slay and burn it, the smoke and odour of it not being 
acceptable, but abominable to the Lord. This they were to 
do in the presence of God's priest, who was to see that all was 
performed agreeably to the rites and ceremonies observed in 
the worship of Jehovah, and not according to the superstitions 
of Egypt. And, to inspire them with a farther detestation, — 
the Priest and all who were concerned in killing and burning, 
were to be ' unclean until the evening/ &c. (Numb. xix. 3 :) 
and, in opposition to the Heathens' fanatical practice of scatter- 
ing the ashes of the sacrifices of their red oxen contumeliously 
in the air, ( a man who was clean was to gather up the ashes 
of the heifer, and lay them up without the camp, in a clean 
place.' " — Young, On Idolatrous Corruptions in Religion, vol. i, 
pp. 208 — 213. See also Spencer, De Leg. Heb. torn, i, lib. ii, 
c. xv. p. 338. 

NOTE CXVII.— Page 304. 

See Maimonides's Talmudical work, entitled Yad ; and his 
Notes on the Mishna, in Surenhusii Mishna. 

NOTE CXVIII— Page 305. 

That Fat which was a part of the flesh might be eaten, (as 
appears from many places, particularly Deut. xxxii. 14,) but 
not that which only lay upon it, and might be separated from 
it; which was burnt upon the altar, when they sacrificed 
either bullock, sheep, or goat : and when they killed any of 
these, or other clean creatures, for their food at home, still 
they were to forbear to eat the Suet ; particularly out of 
reverence to God, whose portion it was at the altar; and 
partly because it was heavy and too strong a food : and it 
seems to have been offered upon the altar, because it was 



428 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

so unctuous, that it would easily burn, aud make the flesh 
also consume the sooner. But from its being God's part, it 
came thence to signify, the best and most excellent of any 
kind of thing. (Numb, xviii, 17; Psalm lxxxi, 16; Psalm 
xxii, 29-) — Bishop Patrick's Commentary on Levit. iii, 16. 

NOTE CXIX.— Page 306. 

See Dissertation V, p. 81. 

NOTE CXX.—Page 306. 

See Note 41, p. 365. 

NOTE CXXL— Page 309- 

Bishop Patrick has explained, and defended the Vow of 
the Nazarite against Dr. Spencer, with great learning and 
ability, in his Commentary on Levit. vi, from which the fol- 
lowing is an extract :. — ■" The directions which God here gives 
about it, (i. e. the hair,) are manifestly opposite to the way of 
the Gentiles. For the Nazarites are here directed to cut their 
Hair, (when the time of their separation was completed,) at 
the door of the Tabernacle ; when it was also to be burnt ; 
whereas, the Gentiles hung their hair, when they had cut it, 
upon trees, or consecrated to rivers, or laid it up in their 
temples, there to be preserved. The Hebrew Nazarites also 
are required to offer various sorts of sacrifices, when they cut 
their hair, of which we scarcely or rarely read any thing 
among the Gentiles ; and all the time of their separation were 
to drink no wine, nor eat grapes, &c. which was not known 
among the Heathen. From whence it is, one may think, that 
they are so often put in mind of the Lord, in this Law of the 
Nazarites, — to put them in mind, that, though they used this 
rite which was common to other nations, yet, it was in honour 
of the Lord only, whom they acknowledged to be the Author 
of health, and strength, and growth. 

NOTE CXXII.— Page 310. 

The reader will find the subject of Friendship excellently 
treated in the 8th and 9th Books of Aristotle's Ethics. In the 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 429 

commencement of the 8th Book, he has a sentiment very 
similar to what is expressed by our author : — " Friendship is 
necessary in youth, as the preservative against irreparable 
errors ; it is necessary in old age, as the consolation amidst 
unavoidable infirmities ; it is necessary in the vigour of man- 
hood, as the best auxiliary in the execution of illustrious enter- 
prises." — Aristotle's Ethies and Politics, by Gillies, b. 8, p. 330, 
vol. i. London, 1797, Mo. 

NOTE CXXIII.— Page 311. 

The words of Maimonides are, " Magna autem ex parte ob 
lianc quoque rationem Scorta publica sunt prohibita, ut hoc 
pacto libido et lascivia cohibeatur. Nam per varietatem 
prostibulorum illorum non pariim augetur libido hominis. 
Nunquam etenim tarn vehementer accenditur homo erga 
-corpus illud, cui est assuetus, sicut accenditur erga corpora 
siova, formis et proprietatibus discrepantia." 

NOTE CXXI V.— Page 311. 

It is probable, that the prohibitions of harlotry, and the 
denunciations against public prostitutions, had reference also 
to those detestable rites of Paganism, practised by the wor- 
shippers of Baal-Feor, Ashteroth, and others of their deities. 
Similar impurities are still practised in India. Mr. Ward, in 
the Preface to the third vol. of his "View of the History, &c. 
of the Hindoos," pp. 37, 38, says, " The author has witnessed 
scenes of impurity in Hindoo worship, which he can never 
commit to writing. — The songs and dances witnessed in the 
Hindoo temples at the time of the Doorga festival, at mid- 
night, would disgrace a house of ill-fame." 

NOTE CXXV.— Page 312. 

The reader will find the subject of Divorces fully treated 
in Selden's " Uxor Hebraica," lib. iii, in which he has given 
the Form of' a Jewish Bill of Divorcement, cap. xxiv, p. 369 ', 
and in cap. xxx, p. 34, a copy of a curious document by which 
John de Cameys divorced his wife, Margaret, in the reign of 
E E 



Z-~ 



430 KOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

King Edward, and transferred her and her property to William 
Paynel. — Copies of the Jewish Bill of Divorcement, are also 
given in Levi's "Ceremonies of the Jews," p. 146; Dr. A. 
Clarke's Commentary on Deut. xxiv, 2 ; Buxtorf 's Synagoga 
Judaica, p. 644, and other similar works. 

NOTE CXXVI.— Page 313. 

The learned Wagenseil has compiled a ponderous quarto 
volume on the subject of the trial by the Waters of Jealousy, 
entitled, " Sota," in which he affords every information to the 
inquirer. The reader may also consult Lewis's Antiquities of 
the Hebrew Republic, vol. iii, ch. xxxiv, in which he will find 
a compendious detail of this Jewish practice. 

NOTE CXXVI I.— Page 313. 

" According to the Targumist and to Deut. xii, 29, the 
dowry was fifty shekels of silver, which the seducer was to 
pay to her father, and he was obliged to take her to wife ; 
nor had he authority, according to the Jewish canons, ever to 
put her away by a bill of divorce. This one consideration was 
a powerful curb on disorderly passions, and must tend greatly 
to render marriage respectable, and prevent all crimes of this 
nature." — Dr. A. Clarke's Commentary on Exod. xxii, 16. See 
also Patrick in loc. 

NOTE CXXVIIL— Ptfge 313. 

By the Genloo code of Laws : — " If a man by force commits 
adultery with a woman of an equal or inferior caste, against 
her consent, the magistrate shall confiscate all his possessions, 
castrate him, and cause him to be led round the city, mounted 
on ass."- — See other similar laws, in Stuart's View of Society in 
Europe, b. i, sect. 3, note 13, p. 1,91 ; Edinburgh, 1792, 8vo. 

NOTE CXX1X— Page 314. 

The term Levirale, is from the old Latin word Levir, sig- 
nifying a husband's brother. " The Mongols, who inhabit 
quite a different region of Asia, and give themselves very little 
concern about their genealogies and descendants, have a law, 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 431 

which, in like manner, enjoins the marriage of a brother's 
widow." Michaelis supposes the practice to have arisen at a 
period much more early than Moses, from the difficulty of 
obtaining wives, where polygamy was practised: the rich 
collecting great numbers of females, as concubines, and 
thereby rendering the remaining number of marriageable 
females extremely small — See Michaelis's Commentaries on 
the Laws of Moses, vol. ii, article 98 ; and Lewis's Antiquities 
of the Hebrew Republic, vol. iii, ch. 29. 

NOTE CXXX— Page 315. 

In the defamation of a wife by her husband, regard was had, 
on the one hand, to the gross reproach cast upon the woman 
herself, her parents, her brothers and sisters, and her whole 
family; and on the other, to the two following circumstances; 
Jirst, that the woman, being defenceless, and in the power of 
her accuser, neither could nor would avenge herself, and of 
course required the more ample protection from the laws ; and 
secondly, that a wife can never have the means of exculpating 
herself to the world, from the disgrace of such charges, unless 
a court of justice inquire into the case, and award her satisfac- 
tion, proportioned to the greatness of the injury she has 
sustained. — Michaelis's Commentaries on the Laws of Moses, 
vol. iv. art. 291, p. 295. 

NOTE CXXX J.— Page 317- 

" The real reason," says Michaelis, " for which a people, 
that would avoid being overwhelmed with the greatest pro- 
fligacy, must prohibit incestuous marriages, absolutely, and 
without the slightest prospect of dispensation is this ; that, 
considering the free intercourse that such persons have 
one with another, some of whom, besides, live from their 
infancy in the same house, it would be impossible to prevent 
the prevalence of whoredom in families, or guard against the 
effects of very early corruption among young persons, if they 
could entertain the least hope of throwing a veil over past 
impurity, by subsequent marriage." — Commentaries on the 
Laws of Moses, vol. ii, art. 108, p. 68. See also art. 102 — 111. 
g e 2 



432 NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

NOTE CXXXIII.— Page 321. 

Spencer, Legibus Hebrceorum, lib. ii, c. 20, supposes, with 
great plausibility, that these inhibitory laws were given in oppo- 
sition to certain practices of the Zabian idolaters, and quotes 
Gulielmus Parisiensis, who refers to certain books written 
expressly on that subject. He also suggests, that these unlawful 
mixtures of cattle were prohibited, lest they should lead 
on to incestuous and unlawful acts amongst the Israelites 
themselves. 

NOTE CXXXIV.— Page 321. 

Maimonides words are — " Circumcisio, meo judicio, propter 
hanc rationem instituta est, ut libido Hominum diminuatur, 
et membrum hoc, quantum fieri potest, ad actum istum 
debilitetur. 

NOTE CXXXV.—Page 323. 

Circumcision was designed to be a sign, and a seal. 
(Romans iv, 11.) 

1. As a sign, it distinguished the Israelites from all other 
people as God's peculiar people ; it was commemorative of the 
Divine covenant, and perpetually reminded them of it : it was 
figurative of that purity of heart, which God promised to bestow 
on those who truly desired it : and it was initiatory, all who 
embraced Judaism being subjected to it. 

2 As a seal, it was a mark impressed by order of Jehovah, 
as a token of his covenant with Abraham and his posterity ; 
and the Jews, by submitting to it, acknowledged their obliga- 
tions to fulfil the conditions of the covenant, whether the rite 
was personally and voluntarily suffered, or whether it was 
performed by parental and federal authority in childhood.— 
See Spencer, De Leg. Heb. vol. i, lib. i, c 4, sect. 2- 

Other reasons have also been adduced of a Physical nature 
for this rite. For, (L) It has been said to be preventive of 
certain diseases, peculiarly dangerous in hot climates, par- 
ticularly the anthrax or carbuncle. (2.) It is asserted to be 
conducive to population. — See Michaelis's Commentaries on 
the Laws of Moses, vol. iii, art. 186; Jahn's Biblical Archseo- 



NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 433 

logy, ch. 10, sect. 162, p. 171 ; Blumenbach's Institutions of 
Physiology, sect, xxxvi, p. 283, note. London, 1817, Svo. 

The question, whether the Jews derived circumcission from 
the Egyptians, or the Egyptians from the Jews ?, is^perhaps 
impossible to be decided. It is, however, certain that Hero- 
dotus wrote too long after Moses to prove that the Jews 
derived it from the Egyptians ; though there are some reasons 
for supposing it in existence before Abraham. — See Spencer, 

De Leg. Heb. lib. i, c. iv. sect. 4 ; Michaelis ut supra, article 

185 ; Jahn ut sup. 

NOTE CXXXVI— Page 324. 

" Non multiplicabit homo coitum, sicut diximus, neque 
etiam omnino eum toilet, cum dictum sit ; Crescite et mullipli- 
camini. Sic debilitatur quidem istud membrum aliquo modo 
in circumcisione, sed non prorsus abscinditur, verum remanet 
in sua constitutione naturali, et cavetur nealiquid addatur. 

NOTE CXXXVIL— Page 324,. 

Maimonides evidently adopts the prejudices of the Eastern 
nations relative to the lower orders of society, nearly approach- 
ing to the Hindoo abhorrence of inferior castes. — See Ward's 
View, &c. vol. iii, pt. i, ch. 2. 

NOTE CXXXVIIL— Page 325. 

Maimonides does not appear to have had any knowledge of the 
descendants of the Zabii existing in his day, or for a thousand 
years previous ; and, therefore, could not derive his views of 
the Zabii from any works, considered by him as modern, as 
has been conjectured by some late writers. 

NOTE CXXXIX.— Page 326. 

In conclusion, we may remark, that the more the Mosaic 
code of Laws is studied, the more fully shall we be convinced 
of its Divine origin, and of the wisdom, prudence, and mercy 
pervading every part of it. The Jews had been in bondage 
to a cruel and idolatrous nation ; their minds were debased, 
and their habits were sensualized ; yet they were to become the 
depositaries of the Divine Law, and the harbingers of the 



431« NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Messiah. Some of the precepts guarded them against idolatrous 
practices, and inculcated hatred of them ; others directed 
them to the unity, purity, justice, and mercy of JEHOVAH. 
Some institutions prefigured the blessings of Messiah's reign ; 
others symbolized the necessity of atonement ; and others 
impressed the conviction of personal sinfulness ; whilst, as a 
whole, they induced humility, elevated the mind to God, pro- 
moted holiness, and directed to the great Redeemer: fully 
justifying the appeal of Moses :—" What nation is there 

SO GREAT, THAT HATH STATUTES AND JUDGMENTS SO 
RIGHTEOUS AS ALL THIS LAW, WHICH I SET BEFORE YOU 

this day?" (Deut. iv, 8.) 



END OF NOTES A?^D ILLUSTRATIONS. 



INDEX. 



A 

Page 

Abraham, educated in the faith of the Zabii. 155 

curious story related of 155, 334 

persecuted by idolaters 150 

supposed by Jews to deliver them from hell 400 

Abarbanel, R. Isaac, biographical notice of 34 

Aben Ezra, R. Abram, biographical notice of 32 

Ablutions, Christian and Heathen 352 

Jewish, figurative of purity 89, 352 

Abolition, (gradual,) of Slavery in Europe, history of 375 

Admonition, or Reproof, punishment of 391 

Adultery, forbidden 319 

woman suspected of, laws concerning 312 

" jEgebolium," meaning of the term , 421 

Agriculture, connected by the Zabii with the worship of the stars, and 

why 169,215 

Alms, why enjoined 218 

Altar, of Incense 245 

of Burnt Offering 265 

not to be built of hewn stones 266, 413 

Amalek, remembrance of, to be blotted out 246 

" Amorites," (ways of,) meaning of the phrase 206 

" Amphidromia," an Athenian feast 361 

Amulets, or charms, made use of by various nations 123 

of Persians, and other nations, were small cylinders 123 

made of arsenick, in large quantities 124 

Anatomical observations of Maimonides, remarks upon 346 

Anecdote, (curious,) of Jews examined by Roman Senators 409 

Angels, figurative character of 73 

lawdelivered by 263, 406 

Animals, used in sacrifice 274, 416 

Mosaic distinction of 62 

designed to prevent Idolatry 65 

to promote health 68 

to influence morals 71 

figurative character of 73 



436 INDEX. 

Page 

" Anima Mundi," hieroglyphic of 236 

" Apis," or Calf, by whom worshipped 336 

Apostates, how punished .-. 249 

" Apotelesmatici," astrologers so called 135 

Aristotle's " Ethics," quoted 257, 310, 320, 422, 429, 431 

Ark, why carried on men's shoulders 270 

origin and form of 406 

of God, imitated by idolaters 407 

Armour, worn by women in worshipping Mars 208 

" Ascophoria," Athenian rites 358 

." Asham," or Trespass-Offering 285 

" Asherah" and " Asheroth," meaning of these terms 163, 339, 361 

worship of 211, 264, 361 

Astrologers, different names of 135 

laws against 135 

Astrological images, denominated " Talismans" 113 

Astrology, Judicial, futility of 128, 137 

different classes of 127 

influence of 135, 359 

" Aswamedha Jug," or Horse-sacrifice of Hindoos 423 

Atonement, typified by Jewish Sacrifices 92 

Avicenna, Works of, translated by Maimonides 16 

Azazel, or Scape-Goat, ceremony of offering 423 

B 

Baal, worship of 46 

or Baal Peor, worship of, obscene and filthy 267, 429 

Babylonian or Chaldean Signets 114 

Bacchus, feasts of, falsely charged upon the Jews 401 

' ; Bahumed," name given to a hieroglyphical figure 336 

Baked Bread, why offered 274 

Baliism, a species of idolatrous worship in Ceylon 44 

Baltan or Bealtine Fires 44, 46 

Barley Meal, why offered 286 

Bastards, why not suffered to marry Israelites 324 

Bats, offered to the sun, by the Zabii 160 

Beard, forbidden to be " marred" 207 

Benediction of the Priests 260 

" Bereschith Rabba," Rabbinical Commentaries so called 332 

Bestiality, precepts concerning 228, 316 

" Beautiful Captive," precepts respecting the 248 

Birds, why offered " 274 

and Birds' Nests, precepts concerning 307 

" Blessing the People," ceremony of 402 

Blood, prohibition of 76, 281 

reasons for 76, 83, 8 i 



INDEX. 



437 



Page 

Blood, offered by Zabii to Demons 70, 280 

by Romans 7" 

by Hindoos 77 

vitality of 73 

drunk by idolaters 80, 81, 420 

unwholesomeness of 83, 305 

typical character of 84 

permanently prohibited 85 

sprinkled at Passover, cause of being 273 

regarded as " clean" by Jewish law • . 281 

ordinances respecting 231, 282 

to be poured out 282, 283, 308, 420 

Body, health and perfection of, how promoted 149, 150 

Borrowing and lending, reasons of the precepts concerning 223 

Boughs used at Feast of Tabernacles 259 

Breast-plate of the Jewish High.. Priest 94 

^ Bristol, formerly a great slave- mart 378 

Burning, punishment of 388 

" Burning out the Witch," meaning of the phrase 368 

Butchery, treatise upon, and regulations of 332 

c 

Cabala, nature of the 36 

Calf, why offered 286 

or " Apis," by whom worshipped 33G 

Camel, sacrificed or killed as an expiation 424 

Candlestick, why placed before the ark 265 

(Golden) representation of on the arch of Titus 410 

Captive, (the beautiful,) precepts respecting 248, 393 

Castrated animals, not to be offered 323 

Cattle, slaying of, detested by idolaters 273, 416 

divers kinds of, not to gender together 320, 432 

Ceremonies of Idolaters, tedious and frivolous 294, 298 

" Cetubim," meaning of the term 30 

Ceylon, public discourses of priests, in 343 

Chaldean, or Babylonian Signets 114 

Chaldeans, a scientific people 337 

Champollion, M., labours of, valuable 349 

Charms or Amulets, their supposed influence 123, 125 

" Chattaah," or Sin-Offering 285 

" Cheeks" of animals, why given to the priest 219 

Cherubim, figures of, why placed on the Mercy-Seat 264, 409 

Children, to maintain their parents 382 

Circumcision, by whom first practised 433 

moral reasons of 91, 279, 331 

F F 



438 



INDEX. 



Page 

Circumcision, physical reasons of 433 

what is meant by its being a " sign" 331, 432 

by its being a " seal" 91, 322, 432 

why performed in infancy 322, 432 

- Cleanliness, inculcated by the Law 189, 247, 297 

,, Collars, placed on the necks of slaves 379 

Collar found in a grave, preserved in the Museum of the Antiquarian 

Society in Scotland 379 

Commentaries, Jewish 32 

Concubinage, (illicit,) forbidden 316 

" Corners" of the head or beard, why forbidden to be rounded 207, 355 

Courts, (different,) reasons of 271 

Cows, killing of, detested by the Jains 416 

offered in sacrifice ibid 

Creation, Wisdom of God manifested in 176 

" Creobolium," meaning of the term 421 

Crimes, to be proportionably punished 234, 284 

how to judge of comparative turpitude of 235 

four classes of 241 

punishment of, when by constraint 241 

through error 242 

pride 243 

with a High Hand 244 

" Curds," the rivals of the Chaldeans 337 

Cuth or Cutha, where situated 333 

Cuthites, who 334 

Cylinders, ornamented, used as charms by Persians 123 

D 

Damages and Injuries, precepts concerning 226 

" Death by the House of Judgment," the punishment so called, 236, 238, 239 

" by the Hand of God," 236, 389 

Decapitation, punishment of 389 

Defamation by a husband, how punished 314, 431 

" Demauno" or " Dewassy," name of Indian priests 419 

Demons, or Devils, worshipped 283 

worshipped in the form of goats 272 

Denmark, privileges of slaves in 379 

Despiser of the Elders, punishment of 239 

of Father or Mother . 239 

Devils, worshipped - 283, 272 

said to inhabit desert places 284 

Devoted things, precepts concerning 223 

Discourses, (public) of Pagan priests in Ceylon 344 

Distinction of Animals into clean and unclean, reasons of, 64, 305 

systematic discrimination in, 64 



index. *oy 

Page. 

Divination, different kinds of 337 

Divine Laws, replete with wisdom 173 

Divorce, when allowed . , 312 

Bill of 430 

curious form of, in the reign of King Edward 429 

Doctors of the Law, distinctions of 329 

Druses, said to worship a calf 336 

E 

Eating forbidden food, punishment of .' 23^ 

on forbidden days 238 

Egyptian Hieroglyphics, attempts to decypher 349 

Egyptian Rites, opposed by Mosaic Law 347, 348 

probably some of them derived from the 'Israelites . . 348 

Egyptians worshipped Aries or the Ram 272 

Egyptians, not acquainted with either the arch, or simple alphabetical 

characters 349 

" Elephantiasis," a terrible disease 104 

English, exported slaves to Ireland 378 

a practice suppressed by St. Wulfstan 378 

Entrails of Beasts, to be washed, . fct*-ist->Jl± 279, 418 

Epilepsy, superstitious remedy for 207 

" Estimations," precepts of, why given 222 

Eternity of the world, asserted by idolaters 157, 337 

Eunuchs, not allowed to marry Israelites 324 

44 Excision or Cutting off," punishment so termed 236, 237, 238, 389 

Expiation, Fast of 254, 398 

F 

False Witnesses, precepts respecting 234 

Fasts, Jewish 254 

Fat, punishment for eating 238 

Fat, why forbidden to be eaten 305, 427 

Fathers, to sell themselves for slaves, in order to educate their children 282 

Fear, a powerful agent, in supporting idolatry 209, 211 

Female Pollutions, precepts concerning 298, 319, 425 

Females, degraded state of, in India 359 

Feodal or Feudal constitution, established in England, by William the 

Conqueror 396 

Festivals, Jewish 97, 255, 258 

why instituted 292 

Fire, passing through, to Moloch, nature of 210, 211 

remains of the practice 46, 47, 211, 360, 361 
forbidden by Council of Trullo, A.D. 692 360 

2 f 2 



440 



INDEX. 



. 



Page. 

" First-born," why offered to God 221 

rights of 395 

First-Fruits, ceremonies of the feast of 363 

in Mesopotamia 365 

offered and eaten in idol temples 21 1, 364 

of three first years to be burned by Jews 211 

offering of, to God, compensated by fruitfulness 212 

why enjoined 211, 220, 362, 367 

Fishes, certain kinds of, forbidden 305 

Flesh, not to be eaten with milk, 306 

Flour, why offered 274 

Food, different kinds of, forbidden, because unwholesome 304, 305 

Forgiveness of injuries, inculcated 253 

Four kinds of boughs used at the Feast of Tabernacles 259 

Frankincense, why burnt in sacrifices 418 

Frauds, how punished 386 

Friendship, the subject of, excellently treated by Aristotle 429 

advantages of . . 310 

Fringes 183, 260, 349 

Fruits of the fourth year, reasons of the precepts concerning .... 219, 292 

. Fruit-trees, magical rites practised concerning 212 

• Fugitive Slaves, laws respecting 224 

G 

Gauments of linen and woollen, forbidden 207, 356 

men and women not to wear each others' 207 

of priests, to be without seam 270 

to be beautiful 267 

., " Gavelkind, 1 ' peculiar tenure in Kent 396 

" Gemara," meaning of the term, and nature of 23, 24 

when, and by whom collected 25 

" Genethliaci," a name for Judicial Astrologers 135 

Getsom, R. Levi Ben, biographical notice of 33 

Goats, or Demons in that form, worshipped by Zabii 272, 286, 416 

why offered, 286, 289 

GOD, supposed to be the Soul of the World by the Zabii 157 

God's House, to be reverenced 267 

Gods (Heathen) worshipped both as gods and goddesses 356. 

Goods, deposited, borrowed, hired, or pledged, laws respecting 250 

Government of Jews, why called a " Theocracy" 59 

" Grafting," obscene practices accompanying 214 

forbidden 214 

Grapes (dried) and Barley sowing together, an idolatrous rite 367 

" Grove," derivation of the term in Latin 414 

tk Groves," different acceptations of the term 163, 340 



INDEX 



441 



Page. 

" Groves," planted about idol temples 414 

Groves, Prophets of the 159 

H 

Habits, how to be formed 287, 422 

Hair, offered to heathen gods 356 

" Halacoth," or Legal Decisions, to be given by none but the High 

Priest, or Members of the Sanhedrim ■ 242 

if given by others, the parties to be punished 242 

Hanging or Strangling, punishment of 389 

Harlots, forbidden 311, 429 

Heathen gods, of both sexes 357 

Hebrew Jurisprudence, Digests of 30 

Hebrew works, translations of 31 

" Hedges of the Law," nature of the 241, 391 

He-Goats, why offered 286 

Heifer, beheading of, the reasons of 229, 384 

Heretics and Apostates, how punished 245 

Hieroglyphics, made the occasion of idolatry 120, 413 

attempts of Dr. Young, and M. Champollion, to decypher 349 

" High-Hand," crimes committed with 244, 392 

' ' High-Places," why chosen, &c 261 

High-Priest, a type of Jesus Christ 94, 97, 415 

not to marry a widow 324 

Hindoo Superstitions 359 

Hindoo rites, awfully obscene 429 

Hired Servants, laws of 251 

Honey, forbidden to be offered 275, 417 

Hooker, the learned divine, extract from 329 

'■ House of Judgment," meaning of the term 240 

death by 236, 239 

House-breaker, punishment of the 239 

Humanity inculcated by the Jewish Law 307 

" Hybristica," or Pagan rites of incivility 358 

I 

Ibn Washih, or Ahmad Bin Abubekr Bin Wahshih, notice of .... 338 

Idolaters, punishments of 240, 245 

Idolatrous Practices 45, 170, 176, 202, 203, 206, 272, 298 

punished by the evils intended to be averted 205 

enforced by fear and misrepresentation 209 

Idolatry, to be eradicated 1 60, 203 

eradication of, the first intention of the Law 160, 171, 290 

of the Zabii 158, 272 

latterly detested by Jews 61, 358 



442 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Idols, forbidden to be sold, or traded with 208 

Illegitimate persons, not to enter the Congregation of Jehovah 324 

,,, Images, (sculptured,) forbidden 266, 413 

^ Incantations, by whom practised, and form of 354, 355 

Incense, reason for burning 269 

Incestuous Marriages, forbidden 316 431 

" Ingathering," Feast of 258, 400 

Inheritances, precepts respecting 252 

Institutions of Moses, originality of * 48 

Intention of the Law two-fold, soundness of mind and body 149 

Ireland, probably the ancient Thule 46 

singular laws of, respecting the maintenance of relatives .... 982 

slaves exported from England, to 378 

" Ithyphalli," or rites of Bacchus 358 



Jarchi, Solomon, biographical notice of 32 

" Jealousy, Waters of" 313 

Jerusalem Talmud 22 

Targum 29 

Jewish Festivals 97 

Jewish Rites, supposed by Maimonides to be borrowed from the Heathens 176 

Jews, cured of idolatry 358 

trust for salvation, in being descendants of Abraham 400 

Jubilee, year of, why enjoined 222, 370 

Judges, necessity of appointing 240 

" Judgments," meaning of the term 144 

Judicial astrology, dissertation on 127 

from whence derived 127 

futility of 128, 137 

influence of 136, 359 

" Jus Talionis," or law of retaliation 234, 232, 385, 387 

K 

Kidnappeb, punishment of the 239, 378 

Kid, seethed in its mother's milk, idolatrous rite of 366 

Kids, why offered 289 

Kimchi, R. David, biographical notice of 33 

King, ought to be venerated 240 

Knowledge of Divine things, origin of 340 



Lamps burned in Sepulchres 411 

lighted, used in religious ceremonies 411 



INDEX, 



443 



Page. 

Law Mosaic accommodated to nations more than to individuals . . 191, 347 

first intention of, to eradicate idolatry 100, 171, 185, 326 

designed to regulate conduct, and induce holiness 190 

book of, ceremony of purchasing 260, 403 

reading of „ 260, 404 

origin and nature of 229 

symbolical 87, 291 

design, secondary of 294, 298 

613 precepts of 333 

diligent study of, enjoined 402 

Lazarettoes, origin of 107 

Leavened bread forbidden to be offered . . „ 275 

Legal pollutions, how purified 297 

Lending and borrowing, precepts concerning, reasons of the 223 

Leprosy, derivation of the name of . . . '. 102 

a terrible disease, 103, 104, 108 

common in Syria and Egypt . . ? 106 

■ person afflicted with, during the Crusades 106 

in houses 108 

in clothes 110 

similar to mildew in cloth Ill 

singular cause of, given by Maimonides 301 

purification of. 302, 426 

" Leuce," or white leprosy, 102 

dreadful nature of 103 

Levites, to have good voices 268 

" Levirate," what and how regulated „ 313, 431 

" Lex Talionis" or law of retaliation 232, 385, 387 

earliest notice of 385 

Limbs of living animals, not to be cut off, or eaten 81, 82, 84, 305 

Linsey-woolsey garments forbidden to be worn 207 

Lost things, why commanded to be restored 229, 382 

" Loosing of the Shoe," ceremony of 313 

M 

Macbodeus, poetic translation from 124 

Magical operations and superstitions 202, 204, 206, 207, 212, 353 

Maimonides, Life of > 13 

born at Cordova 13 

educated under Averroes 13 

removes to Egypt 15 

trades as a jeweller 15 

completes his Commentary on the Mishna 15 

appointed physician to the Sultan 15 

translates the Works of Avicenna 16 



444 INDEX. 

Page. 

Maimonides, founds an Academy 10 

compiles his Yad, and More Nevochim 17 

More Nevochim. editions of 17 

meets with violent opposition 18 

is triumphantly defended 19 

transcribes the Pentateuch 20 

dies in Egypt 20 

general mourning for 21 

eulogiums on 21 

Manilius, an astronomical poet, quoted 114 

Manslayer, laws respecting the 229, 383 

Marriages, ordered to be public 311 

(incestuous,) forbidden 316 

with other nations, forbidden 324 

" Mars," worshipped by women in armour, and why 208, 357 

" Masora," nature of the 35 

termed the " Hedge of the Law" 302 

editions of 36 

" Mathematici," Astrologers so called 135 

'.' Maw" of animals, why given to the priest 219 

Meat-Offering 278, 285, 291 

Men, not to wear women's garments 207 

"• Mercy-Seat," form and design of 400 

Mesopotamia, practice in 365 

" Mezuzoth," or schedules affixed to the door-posts ........ 183, 260, 350 

Mice, offered by the Zabii to the Sun 160 

Milk, kid not to be seethed in 306 

idolatrous rite of 366 

" Mincha," or Meat-Offering 278, 285, 291 

" Mishna," or Oral Law, nature of 23 

origin of . . . : 23 

editions of 23 

" Mithra," mysteries of 360 

Mixtures, heterogeneous, forbidden 207, 356, 366 

Moloch, passing through the fire to, forbidden 210 

Month, the Seventh, peculiarly honoured 400 

Moon, supposed influence of 366 

" Moral and Physical Precepts," useful 217 

" More Nevochim," editions of 17 

character of 17, 47 

written in Arabic 17 

translated into Hebrew, by R. Aben Tybbon .... 17 

commencement of 144 

Mosaic Institutions, originality of 48 

typical character of 87 



INDEX. 4i45 

Page 

Mosaic Institutions, preparatory nature of 179, 433 

opposed to Egyptian 347, 348 

Mosaic Precepts, have a discoverable design 144, 326 

different terms for, explained 145 

relate to Faith, Morals, and Civil Polity 173 

designed to inculcate Purity 187, 319 

accommodated to nations, rather than to individuals . . 191 

divided into Fourteen classes 193 

intended to relieve from oppressive rites 171? 345 

Mothers, to be supported in preference to Fathers by their sons 382 

Mount Moriah, why chosen by Abraham 261, 404 

Mulcts, pecuniary, regulations of 385 

Murder, punishment of 232 

Murders, when the murderer is unknown, laws respecting 230, 384 

"Muzzling the ox," forbidden, and reasons for the prohibition .. 251, 394 
" Mystica vannus Iacchi," meaning of the phrase 365 

N 

NabathjEans, who they were 334 

Nachman, R. Moses Bar, biographical notice of 33 

Nativities, casting of, by Bramins 359 

Nazarite, reason of the precepts concerning 308, 428 

New-Moon, feasts of the 361 

New-Year's day, celebrated 256, 399, 400 

Norway, abolition of slave-trade in 378, 380 

o 

Oblations, origin of 176 

exemplify the reasons of the Mosaic Law 146 

or " Terumoth," reasons for 218 

Obscene practices of the Zabii 202, 203, 267 

Offerings, (Sin-, Trespass-, Peace-,) 276 

various ceremonies of 276 

not to be altered or changed, or appropriated to personal use . . 277 

Oil, (anointing,) why commanded 26!), 424 

not to be made by any but the priests 270 

Oil, mixed with flour 417 

Order, to observed in the Divine Services 271 

Origin of Knowledge of Divine Things 340 

Originality of the Institutions of Moses 48 

P 

Palilia, Pagan feasts 360 

Passover, why instituted 97, 257 

Gg 



446 



Page 

Passover, feast of the 255 

peculiar statutes of, reasons for 278 

reasons for celebrating for seven days . . , 399 

Pecuniary Judgments 250 

Pentateuch, transcribed by Maimonides 20 

Pentecost, or Feast of Weeks 255 

" Peor," or " Baal-Peor," worship of, forbidden 267, 415 

obscenities -and filthiness in worship of . . 267, 415 

Phylacteries, or Tephillin, form of, &c 183, 260, 349 

Pigeons, (young,) or Turtle-doves, why offered 274 

Pledges, lending upon, regulations of 371 

Pollutions, how purified w 297 

(female) oppressive amongst idolaters 292, 298, 425 

distinctions of 299 

frivolous and tedious 298, 425 

Pork, why forbidden 304 

Precepts of Mosaic Law, said to be Six Hundred and Thirteen 148, 333 

designed to prevent evil and encourage virtue 153,217 

divided into Fourteen Classes 193 

distinguished as negative and affirmative 333 

Precious stones, divination by 121 

Preparatory nature of the Mosaic Institutions 179 

Prevention of crimes, the design of God's Laws 380 

Pride, crimes committed through, how punished 243 

Priests, not to be deformed 268 

not to marry illegitimate or unclean persons 322 

Priests' Garments, to be beautiful 267, 270 

Primo-geniture, prevalence and rights of 252, 395 

Prophecy, remarks upon 263 

Propitiatory, or Mercy-Seat, form and design of 407 

Punishments, general nature of 232 

capital 236, 388 

four degrees of 236 

" Purchasing the Book of the Law," ceremony of 260 

Purifications, regulated by degree of pollution 297 

Purity, inculcated by the law 187, 319 

Pursuer, slaying of the, precepts respecting 228 

R 

Rape, how punished 313, 430 

Raw flesh, eating of, forbidden 82, 84 

practised 81 

Reading the Law, duty of 260 



INDEX. 44 i 

Page 

" Rebuke," punishment of 391 

Red Heifer, why called " Chattaah," or Sin-Offering 302 

" Redemption, year of," why commanded 222 

of consecrated things, reasons of the laws of 371 

Refuge, cities of , 383 

Relatives, not to be suffered to beg, but to be maintained 382 

Repentance, necessity of . „ 200 

" Reproof," or Admonition, punishment of 391 

Restitution, and fines of 234, 386, 388 

Reverence for the House of God, inculcated . . 255, 267, 295, 296, 297, 412 

Richard I., anecdote of 122 

Ring, of certain metal, worn by idolaters 2 °7 

Robbery and Theft, precepts concerning 235 

" Rounding the corners of the head," why forbidden 207, 355 

Runaway Slaves, laws concerning 22 * 

s 

Saadias, R. biographical notice of 34 

Sabbath, causes of the institution of the 254, 351, 397 

" Sabbatic Year," reasons of 368 

Sacrifices, design of 92, 419 

not the first and independent object of the law 183 

Salt, why offered 275, 417 

Sanctuary, or " Holy cf Holies," to be reverenced, 255, 267, 295, 297, 412 
Sanhedrim, privileges of the members of the 242 

members of the, accountable to God 392 

" Scape-Goat," the rite of 423 

Sceptical objections, answered 180, 181 

Scourging, punishment by 236, 390 

Scrophula, superstitious remedy for 207 

Sculptured images, forbidden 266 

Seduction, how punished 313, 430 

Seeds of divers kinds, not to be sown together 366 

Servitude, precepts respecting, and reasons of the 223, 251 

" Shekel," value of 380 

" Shema," reading of the 352 

Shew-Bread 265 

Table of 265 

Shepherds, why hated by the Egyptians 272, 415 

Shoulder of ox or sheep, why given to the priest 219 

Signets, Babylonian or Chaldean 114 

" Signs" confounded with " Causes," occasion of apostacy 120 

Siloam, (Fountain of, ) water drawn from, at the Feast of Tabernacles . . 402 
Sin-Offerings, ordinances respecting , 276, 285, 290 



448 INDEX. 

Page 

" Sinew of the thigh," why not eaten 305 

Slave-trade, historical remarks respecting the 3?5, 379, 381 

Slavery, abolition of in Europe, history of 375 

reasons of precepts concerning 223 

remarks upon Jewish laws of 372 

Slaves, different prices and valuations of 381 

ancient ceremonies of emancipation of 376, 379 

exportation of, forbidden 377, 378 

forbidden to be sold 376 

why prevented entering the congregation 324 

Slaughtering of animals, precepts concerning 306, 332 

" Slaying of the Pursuer," precepts respecting 228 

" Slaying with the sword," punishment of 389 

Small cylinders, used as charms 123 

Smoke, raising of, practised in the Wolds of Yorkshire 367 

" Socage," or " Soccage," meaning of the term 396 

Sodomy, severely prohibited 316 

*' Sons Rebellious," punishment of 239 

Son, to sell himself into slavery, to maintain his parents, by an Icelandic 

Law 382 

44 Soul of the World," or Anima Mundi, idolatrous opinion con- 
cerning 157, 334, 344 

Hieroglyphic of 335 

Sowing with divers seeds, forbidden, and why 215, 3C6, 367 

" Statutes," meaning of the term 144 

Stoning, punishment of 388 

Strangling, or Hanging, punishment of 389 

Superstitious and Idolatrous practices .... 45, 170, 176, 202, 203, 206 

Sweden, abolition of slave-trade in 380 

Swine, filthy animals 304 

Swine's flesh, why forbidden 304 

Sword, the, (slaying with,) punishment of 389 

Syrians, worshipped a woman clothed like a man 357 

T 

Tabernacle and Temple, why constructed 263, 412 

Tabernacles, feast of 98, 257, 401 

Table, placed before the Ark 265 

Talismans and Talismanic Figures, origin of 112, 113, 116 

supposed influence of 117 

various kinds of 119 

Talmud of Jerusalem 22 

by whom, and when compiled 22 



INDEX, 449 

Page 

Talmud of Jerusalem, editions of 23 

Talmud of Babylon 23 

when completed 23 

editions of 23 

prohibitions of 2S 

translated into Arabic 27 

Targums, number of 27 

Targum, meaning of the term 27 

of Onkelos 28 

of Jonathan Ben Uzziel 28 

of the Pseudo-Jonathan 28 

of Rabbi Joseph 29 

of Jerusalem ' 29 

on the Cetubim 30 

on the Megilloth 30 

on Esther .» 30 

" Taurobolium," or Sacrifice of Regeneration 420 

" Teeth and Feet," of cattle, meaning of the phrase 226 

^ Telesms, or Talismans, astrological images so called 113, 116, 117 

Temple of Solomon, standard of the Grecian temples 406 

t Temples, origin of 405 

" Tenuphoth," meaning of the term 362, 363 

" Tephillin," or Phylacteries 183, 260, 349, 350 

£, Terah, Abraham's father, singular story of 115 

a maker of Talismans, or images 115 

" Terumoth," or Oblations, reasons for the 218, 363 

Thammuz, mourning for, an idolatrous custom 164, 343 

Theft and Robbery, precepts concerning 235 

w Theocracy," why the Jewish government was so called 59 

Thoth, the Egyptian god of learning, the same as Hieroglyphics 413 

Threshing of corn, or " treading out" 394 

cruelty to oxen in 395 

Translations of Hebrew works 31 

[ Trees, worship of 1 63, 264 

not to be planted near the altar 266 

Typical character of Mosaic Institutions 87, 291 

Tythes, why enjoined 218 

(second,) to be eaten at Jerusalem only 219, 292 

u 

Unleavened Bread, why eaten 256 

Urim and Thummim, origin of the name 95 

typical 94 

Utility -of .Mosaic Precepts ] Gl 

of those which regard essential articles of faith 1SS 

relate to idolatry 201 

H H 



450 INDEX. 

V 

Page 

Venus, an armed one, worshipped 357 

Vows, precepts concerning 308 

w 

Water, ceremony of drawing and pouring out at the Feast of 

Tabernacles 402 

" Waters of Jealousy," treated of 313, 430 

" Ways of the Amorites," meaning of the phrase 20G 

Weeks, Feast of, or Pentecost 255 

Wine, why offered 292, 424 

Wisdom of God in creation 17G 

Witnesses, necessity for 240 

Women, not to wear men's garments 207 

arguments used to prevail upon them to burn themselves on 

the funeral pile 359 

Worship, reasons of 260 

Y 

" YaI) Hachazakah," or the Strong Hand, compiled by Maimonides 17 

editions of „ 31 

portions of, translated 31 

Year, beginning of the, why celebrated 256 

Sabbatic 368 

Yorkshire, Wolds of, practice in 36/ 

Young, Doctor, deciphers Egyptian Hieroglyphics 349 



Zabian Idolatries, a knowledge of, explains reasons of the Mosaic 

Precepts 166 

Zabianism, or Worship of the Stars, dissertation upon 38 

origin of 38, 41, 43 

existed prior to the time of Job and the Giving of the Law 39, 40 

influence of, widely extended 44 

Zabii, remains of 43 

superstitions of 45, 1 70,- .176, 202, 203, 206, 207, 212, 298 

faith of ., 155, 157, 159 

censure Noah for not worshipping idols, and say that he was 

imprisoned 157 

say that Adam worshipped the Moon 157 

fabulous account of an extraordinary tree, by them 158 

worshippers of images erected to planets 158 



INDEX, 451 

Page 

Zabii, the same as " Prophets of Baal," and " of Groves" 159 

offerings of, to the Sun 16 ° 

books of 156, 162,166, 170 

maintain the Eternity of the World 157 

strange relations of 16S 

worshipped goats, or demons in that form 272 

rites of, tedious and oppressive 294, 298 

antiquity of 325 > 43S 

" Zizith," or Garments with fringes 183, 260, 349, 350 



THE END, 



James Nichols, Printer, 

2, Warwick Square, Newgate Street, London. 



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